Deforestation remains one of the most significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions globally. Tropical regions are particularly critical to climate mitigation due to their high carbon density and ongoing conversion to agricultural uses. While earth observation (EO) has become fundamental for assessing land-use change over time and space, key gaps persist in understanding associated carbon emissions (CE) and their distribution across production systems, information required by diverse international and European policy frameworks targeting greenhouse gas reduction and deforestation. To address this, the study integrates satellite-derived aboveground biomass (AGB) with machine learning-based land-use modeling to quantify commodity-specific CE from deforestation in Colombia. Our key findings reveal that pasture expansion for livestock dominates emissions (>67% in the Amazonas and Orinoquía regions, approximately 25% nationally), while cocoa and coffee, despite smaller cultivation areas, exhibit high emission factors (>25% of subregional totals in the Andes, Pacífico, and Caribe). Smallholder croplands contribute up to 16.7% regionally, and oil palm plays a modest role nationally. These results underscore the importance of targeting both extensive pasture systems and high-emission perennial crops in deforestation-free supply chain policies, while considering the diverse regional land-use dynamics. In conclusion, our framework offers spatially explicit, crop-specific emission estimates that address essential gaps in EO-based CE quantification. It provides clear, actionable baselines for monitoring policies aimed at promoting deforestation-free supply chains, such as the EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR), across tropical landscapes. Ultimately, this data supports the creation of a comprehensive database of country-specific emission factors, a resource critical for enhancing national carbon inventories, guiding policy decisions related to high-risk deforestation commodities, and ensuring more transparent and traceable zero-deforestation supply chains.
Tag: coffee
Agroeconomic performance and labor dynamics associated with coffee and black pepper diversified cropping systems
This study examines the agronomic, labor, and economic impacts of crop diversification in Robusta coffee and black pepper farming systems in Vietnam’s Central Highlands, where these commodities are major sources of income for approximately 800,000 households. In response to market volatility, many farmers have diversified production by integrating coffee, black pepper, and fruit or nut tree species within the same farms. Using survey data from 238 households, the study compares monoculture systems with diversified cropping systems to evaluate differences in resource use, productivity, labor requirements, and profitability. The results show that diversification enhances land-use efficiency through higher planting densities and improves nutrient-use efficiency while maintaining coffee and black pepper yields at the individual plant level. Although coffee and pepper yields per hectare tended to decrease in diversified systems, production from additional crops compensated for these reductions. Resource-use patterns differed between commodities, with black pepper systems requiring greater phosphorus inputs and pesticide use, whereas coffee systems relied more heavily on nitrogen fertilizers and irrigation. Diversified coffee systems applied water more frequently but in smaller amounts per tree, contributing to reduced overall water use. Labor requirements also varied considerably among systems. Black pepper production was the most labor-intensive activity, particularly during harvest periods. Diversification helped distribute labor demand more evenly throughout the year, reducing seasonal labor peaks. Economically, black pepper systems generated higher gross outputs but also incurred greater operating costs, resulting in gross margins similar to those of other systems. Diversified systems, however, provided higher returns to labor. Overall, the findings indicate that diversification offers important benefits in resource-use efficiency and labor management while maintaining comparable profitability under prevailing market conditions, supporting the development of more resilient farming systems in the Central Highlands.
Making the European Union Green Deal Benefit the Environment Society of the European Union and ASEAN
This chapter offers a detailed examination of the European Union Deforestation Regulation, a pivotal policy that governs market access for key agricultural commodities and is reshaping trade relations between the European Union (EU) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Focusing on exports such as palm oil, timber, and coffee from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam, the analysis employs system dynamics modelling and scenario development. A central finding is the significant opportunity presented by the regulation’s 2020 deforestation cut-off date. This means the rule’s initial impact is likely narrow, affecting only about 1% of existing palm oil plantations. This limited-scale effect may be similar for other ASEAN commodities, suggesting most established producers will not face immediate, large-scale disruption. However, the chapter equally details substantive threats, including high costs for compliance, product monitoring, and institutional development, alongside risks to export volumes and the livelihoods of millions. Learning from the lengthy implementation of the timber legality agreement, the chapter concludes that equitable outcomes and progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals require fair negotiations underpinned by a balance of power. It strongly advocates for empowering formal bilateral bodies, such as the EU-Indonesia Working Group, to establish clear, phased, and actionable implementation pathways.
Tree-powered bioeconomies in Africa
Key Facts
- Africa is a leading producer of six tree commodities: cocoa, shea, cashew, gum arabic, baobab and argan oil. It also contributes to the global supply of several other tree commodities of significance, including coffee, wood, oil palm, rubber, avocados, and dates.
- About 11 countries in sub-Saharan Africa can be classified as tree-commodity dependent economies. Seven of them depend on a single tree commodity, while four depend on multiple tree commodities.
- Tree commodities are grown on and occur on more than 100 million hectares of land across the continent.
- Africa captures less than 10% of the global market value for most tree commodities produced.
- Up to 44% of perishable tree fruits, such as mangoes, avocados, oranges and other citrus species, are lost annually across many countries on the continent.
- Forestry contributes more than 10% of the formal gross domestic product (GDP) in about 11 African countries.
- Wood demand in Africa is expected to triple by 2050.
- An estimated 5,400 plant species and 16,000 medicinal applications have been documented in Africa, with the potential to serve as building blocks to supply part of the USD 50 billion-a-year pharmaceutical market on the continent with biopharmaceuticals.
- Africa’s middle class could grow to 40% of the continent’s population by 2060, potentially fuelling demand for high-value tree bioeconomy products and trade through the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).
- Only three holistic national bioeconomy policies exist in Africa (South Africa, Namibia and Ethiopia) and one regional bioeconomy strategy (the East African Community). Meanwhile, 13 countries have relevant indirect strategies and policies.
Spatiotemporal variation in Coffea canephora leaf traits and iWUE in Congo Basin forests
Understanding how plant traits vary across space and time is critical for predicting responses to environmental change. This study analyzed 179 herbarium samples of Coffea canephora collected between 1900–60 and 2016–21 across the Congo Basin. Researchers measured morphological traits (specific leaf area [SLA], stomatal size [S], stomatal pore size [SPS], stomatal density [SD], maximum diffusive conductance [gcmax]) and physiological traits (δ¹³C, δ¹⁸O isotopes, intrinsic water-use efficiency [iWUE]). Results revealed significant spatiotemporal variation: SLA and stomatal size increased over the past century, while SPS, SD, gcmax, δ¹³C, and iWUE decreased. Morphological traits reflected long-term environmental adaptation, whereas physiological traits responded to short-term drivers such as atmospheric CO₂ and precipitation. Trait correlations highlighted functional trade-offs: SLA was negatively correlated with iWUE, while S, SD, and gcmax were positively associated. These findings suggest a decoupling between morphology and physiology that may constrain photosynthetic performance under future climate change. Herbarium-based multitrait approaches prove valuable for reconstructing long-term plant responses and climate sensitivity in tropical understorey species.
Analysis of Ethiopian Coffee Value Chain for Compliance with European Union Deforestation Regulation
The coffee sector is of crucial importance to Ethiopia, directly impacting about one-fifth to one-quarter of the population and contributing around one-third of the country’s export revenue. Notably, nearly one-third of these export earnings are from European countries. However, this trade is increasingly challenged by the enforcement of the European Union Deforestation Regulation (EUDR), which seeks to curb deforestation and forest degradation associated with the consumption of certain commodities, including coffee. A core requirement of the EUDR is traceability of coffee to ensure it is produced and marketed free from deforestation. Despite its growing relevance, there remains a paucity of studies examining the implications of the EUDR, particularly with regard to its potential impact on Ethiopia’s coffee export value chain and the country’s level of preparedness. This study was undertaken to assess the compliance of the Ethiopian coffee value chain with the EUDR by collecting data from both primary and supporting value chain actors and stakeholders. The analysis employed the Structure-Conduct-Performance framework. The findings reveal that forest and semi-forest coffee production systems, as well as coffee value chain channels involving investors, cooperatives/unions, and processor-exporters, demonstrate greater alignment with EUDR requirements, owing to their product uniformity and traceability. Four categories of incompliance were identified: “Information,” “Product,” “Market,” and “Procedural”. To address this, Ethiopia should consider adopting a phase-based compliance approach, expanding cooperative membership and outgrower schemes, enhancing oversight of product aggregation, developing technological support systems for EU operators, strengthening the national taskforce, and providing incentives to smallholder producers. By implementing these measures and reinforcing collaboration with the EU, Ethiopia can maintain access to EU markets. Furthermore, the insights from this study may inform the compliance strategies of other commodities within Ethiopia and offer lessons for other countries with similar regulatory contexts.
Woody species diversity and structure across natural forest coffee, semi-forest coffee, and homegarden coffee in the Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve, Southwest Ethiopia
Natural forest coffee, semi-forest coffee, and homegarden coffee are generally seen as beneficial for biodiversity conservation, but this may not always be the case. While they are widely recognized for their biodiversity conservation values, their impact on woody species diversity, composition, and structure still remains a gap. This study examined the impact of natural forest coffee, semi-forest coffee, and homegarden coffee on woody species diversity and structure in the Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve, Southwest Ethiopia. Three coffee production systems were considered for the study, namely homegarden coffee, semi-forest coffee, and natural forest coffee. In all, 90 sample plots were randomly selected and surveyed. A total of 27 woody species belonging to 17 families were recorded. Natural forest coffee maintains the highest structural complexity and continuous regeneration of shade trees as compared to homegarden and semi forest coffee. All diversity indices confirmed that there was significantly higher biodiversity in natural forest coffee. Structural attributes, including stem density, diameter at breast height (DBH), and basal area, were significantly greater in natural forest coffee and semi-forest coffee than in homegarden coffee (p 0.05). Both the Jaccard and Sørensen similarity coefficients indicate a strong overlap in woody species composition between natural forest coffee and semi-forest coffee (Jaccard = 0.67 and Sørensen = 0.80). Natural forest coffee and homegarden coffee showed the lowest similarity (Jaccard = 0.38; Sørensen = 0.56), reflecting substantial differences in species composition. Rarefaction analyses confirmed adequate sampling coverage. The findings emphasize the highly significant role of natural forest coffee and semi-forest coffee for biodiversity conservation.
Promoting Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) through Strengthening the Capacity of Smallholder Farmers: Lessons from Kapuas Hulu District, West Kalimantan
Kapuas Hulu District in West Kalimantan has abundant natural resource potential but faces growing sustainability challenges in the context of climate change, particularly for key plantation commodities such as cacao, rubber, coffee, and oil palm, which are generally cultivated in monoculture systems. These systems are highly vulnerable to market price fluctuations, pest and disease outbreaks, and climate variability. The promotion of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) through agroforestry is seen as a way to strengthen the economic and environmental resilience of smallholder farmers in responding to climate change impacts.
To build smallholders’ capacity to apply CSA practices, the Enhancing the Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies and Practices of Smallholder Commodity Farmers (ECSAP) program implements a range of activities aimed at driving behavioural change using the ADKAR approach (Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, and Reinforcement). The program has supported the emergence of 24 Independent Extension Agents and Model Farmers who provide farmer-to-farmer extension to promote the adoption of CSA practices for the main plantation commodities in Kapuas Hulu.
This brief also presents a set of recommendations for relevant stakeholders at local and national levels to support smallholder capacity building and to encourage the wider and more sustained implementation of CSA.
A coffee corridor for biodiversity and livelihoods: climatic feasibility of shade coffee cultivation in western Rwanda
Around the world, restoration activities are underway to halt and reverse ecosystem degradation. A key challenge is to identify restoration approaches that work for both people and nature – i.e. approaches that can sustain livelihoods as well as biodiversity. Here, we focused on a mosaic landscape in western Rwanda. The landscape features two strictly protected remnant patches of Afromontane rainforest (Gishwati and Mukura forests), which are of high conservation value, but are isolated from one another by some 30 km of smallholder farmland. Connecting Gishwati and Mukura forests would be valuable from a biodiversity perspective, but to date, it is unclear how this could be done in a way that is consistent with local people’s livelihoods. To that end, we modelled the climatic suitability for growing shade coffee in the area between Gishwati and Mukura forests. We systematically evaluated plausible scenarios of future climate change and found that much of the study area is already suitable for growing coffee, and will become increasingly suitable in the future. In addition, we identified a series of local species that could be used as shade trees. With the study area becoming increasingly suitable for growing coffee over the coming decades, and with suitable shade trees being native to the study area, we argue there is high potential for establishing a shade coffee corridor between Gishwati and Mukura forests. Such a corridor, in turn, could provide a win-win opportunity for biodiversity conservation and local people’s livelihoods.
Integrating local knowledge with tree diversity analyses to optimize on-farm tree species composition for ecosystem service delivery in coffee agroforestry systems of Uganda
Coffee agroforestry systems deliver ecosystem services (ES) critical for rural livelihoods like food but also disservices that constrain livelihoods like fostering coffee-pests. Since such ES are tree-based, maximizing ES and limiting constraints requires knowledge on optimizing on-farm tree composition especially trees adapted to local conditions. The study was in three sites along a rainfall gradient in Central Uganda where we: assessed tree diversity in coffee agroforestry; ranked tree suitability for providing ES according to farmers’ knowledge; and then proposed an approach for optimizing on-farm tree composition for delivery of ES. We collected data on tree diversity and, farmers’ knowledge of tree species and the ES they provide. Farmers ranked ES in order of importance to their livelihoods (‘Needs rank’) and ranked trees according to suitability for providing ES. Using Bradley Terry modeling, we grouped trees into ‘ES groups’ according to suitability for providing different ES and ranked ‘ES groups’ according to tree diversity (‘Diversity rank’). Tree-suitability for providing ES and importance of ES to farmers varied with rainfall regime but tree diversity did not match farmers’ needs for ES. We propose the FaD–FaN (matching farm tree diversity to farmers’ needs) approach for optimizing tree species composition with respect to tree-suitability for farmers’ priority ES. Farmers locally prioritize ES needed and identify trees that best serve such ES. The approach then focuses on modifying on-farm tree diversity to match/suit farmers’ priority ES. The FaD–FaN approach caters for varying socio-ecological conditions; it’s adaptable for other coffee and cocoa-growing areas worldwide.