Increasing demand for food and non-food products by a growing population accompanied by shrinking area of agricultural land—with 17% abandoned or underutilized—has challenged sustainable agricultural development in Nepal. Yet agriculture, which occupies 24.2% of the land area, contributes 23.9% to GDP, engaging two-thirds of the population. Agricultural practices often combine forestry activities across landscapes, forming agroforestry systems. Application of an innovative, climate-smart agroforestry (CSAF) approach to agricultural landscapes can produce a wide range of ecosystem goods and services. A wide range of policy instruments have made clear provisions for utilizing abandoned and marginal land through agroforestry practices that contribute to climate and livelihood goals. However, abandonment of agricultural land is ever-increasing owing to low productivity, out-migration and lack of labor, off-farm income sources and enhanced purchasing power, unscientific land management policies, rugged terrain and harsh climatic conditions, invasive plants and land fragmentation. We recommend policy and institutional reforms through the development of a national roadmap based on a nexus approach to support land-sector policies and priorities, such as strengthening climate and agricultural information services; conservation and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity through site-specific crops in CSAF; development of value chains of CSAF products in partnership with the larger private sector; subsidies and safety nets for resource-poor smallholding and marginalized farmers; building capacity in CSAF technologies and practices; provision of infrastructure and other facilities for commercial CSAF; establishing CSAF as wildlife corridors; and research into the full set of ecosystem services, including carbon and ecotourism, provided by CSAF. This will not only support the agri-food sector but also contribute to climate, livelihood and development goals. This chapter presents the authors’ perspectives on the key challenges facing the agricultural sector and, particularly, the agroforestry sub-sector, and recommends ways for maximizing economic, social and environmental benefits from a CSAF approach.
Tag: climate change mitigation
Standard and Methodology for the Development and Certification of Mangrove Blue Carbon Projects in Indonesia
Mangrove blue carbon holds high economic value, making the development of investment-based projects reliant on robust standards and methodologies. The Standards and Methodologies Document for the Development and Certification of Mangrove Blue Carbon Projects in Indonesia outlines procedures for developing mangrove blue carbon projects using standards and methodologies that take into account both national regulations and internationally recognized frameworks. It details the standards for defining spatial and temporal boundaries and for carbon stock accounting for each category of mangrove blue carbon projects, presented within the context of the project development cycle.
The methodologies described include the establishment of baselines (both historical and scenario-based), calculation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals, and approaches for integrating national and international methodologies. This document refers to several technical references such as the User Manual of the National Registry System for Climate Change Control (SRN PPI) and the Guidelines for the Certification Scheme on Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction (SPEI), as well as national regulations including Presidential Regulation No. 98 Year 2021 and Minister of Environment and Forestry Regulation No. 21 Year 2022. In addition, it aligns with international standards such as the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), Plan Vivo (PV), and the Emission Reduction Fund (ERF).
Rooting impactful forest carbon benefit sharing in local definitions and understandings: Lessons learned from Vietnam
Forest carbon markets are increasingly promoted as a potential solution to reduce emissions and help countries meet their commitments under the Paris Agreement. However, concerns persist among key stakeholders – particularly Indigenous Peoples and local communities – about the extent to which they will benefit from these initiatives. Central to the debate is the question of benefit sharing: who should benefit and how should those benefits be distributed? In countries like Vietnam, this remains a pressing issue for policymakers, practitioners and local communities alike.
Various governments and carbon standard-setting bodies have developed guidelines of an ‘effective’ benefit-sharing mechanism. However, these frameworks are often top-down, heavily influenced by Western norms and disconnected from the lived realities and perceptions of local stakeholders. Using Vietnam as a case study, this paper explores how local actors conceptualize and define impactful benefit-sharing mechanisms. Our findings highlight a significant disconnect between international frameworks and local communities’ daily experiences and values. The paper argues for a re-grounding of benefit-sharing concepts that are responsive to multi-scalar perspectives and rooted in local understandings of fairness and impact. Only through such an approach can benefit-sharing mechanisms be considered truly just and effective.
Towards an effective, practical and equitable forest carbon legal framework in Vietnam: Recommendations and proposals for the Draft Decree on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Storage Services, based on a synthesis of global and Vietnamese experiences and practices
This report analyses the provisions proposed in the Draft Decree on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Storage Services (‘the Draft Decree’) and provides relevant information as well as scientific evidence in both the global and Vietnamese contexts. The aim is to help policymakers make informed adjustments that align with Vietnam’s specific circumstances while positioning the country to proactively respond to emerging trends in the future carbon market.
Prioritizing mitigation pathways in land use and food systems: A systematic framework to assess opportunities
The global food system generates substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, amounting to 13–23 GtCO₂e annually, or 23–42% (average: 31%) of the total global net anthropogenic GHG emissions. Yet, despite its importance, the food system is still rarely considered holistically in climate policies, strategies and plans. To help fill this gap, this paper develops a simple but systematic, comprehensive and integrated framework to assess and rank alternative mitigation options in land use and food systems, based on their desirability (what we should do) and feasibility (what we can do). This framework consists of 23 indicators covering the six dimensions of feasibility defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), namely: the geophysical, environmental-ecological, technological, economic, sociocultural and institutional dimensions. Such a framework could help policymakers to raise the ambition of their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and climate policies by identifying and prioritizing ‘low-hanging fruits’, i.e., mitigation options that have the highest transformative potential; can be implemented the most quickly and easily; and are the best adapted to national or local conditions, priorities and needs.
Leveraging mangroves to advance climate action in Africa: Zooming in on Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
Mangroves are vital for climate change adaptation and mitigation due to their efficient carbon sequestration and coastal protection roles providing often untapped opportunities for countries to enhance their national climate commitments (including the so-called Nationally Determined Contributions) under the Paris Agreement adopted at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) COP21 in 2015. In Africa, several countries possess mangroves and have signed the Paris Agreement, however, the level of integration of mangrove actions into the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) has not been adequately explored.
Using a systematic review methodology, 33 African countries possessing mangroves were selected and their NDCs were reviewed, scored, and ranked to assess their level of integration of mangrove ecosystems into their NDCs.
Countries like Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan demonstrate commendable progress and leadership in integrating mangroves within their NDCs. However, gaps in budgetary commitments, spatial planning, and temporal specificity for mangrove actions among a majority of the countries hinder broader mangrove inclusion. The study also revealed a disconnect between research outputs and policy frameworks, where countries with increased mangrove research output in Africa failed to integrate mangrove actions into their NDCs.
To increase African countries’ resilience to climate risks and contributions to global climate goals, there is a need to increase effective collaboration between mangrove researchers, local communities, and policymakers in mangrove-possessing countries. This will bolster public education on mangroves and their inclusion of mangrove actions in their NDCs, ultimately enhancing the implementation of mangrove actions on the ground.
Climate Change and Social Forestry: An Overview of CIFOR Research on Enhancing Resilience in Boreal and Tropical Forest Landscape
The climate crisis highlights the importance of forests in both mitigating and adapting to climate change, as well as in supporting the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). To promote the better understanding and valuing of the critical role forests play, and to develop holistic approaches to protecting and maintaining them, the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) has adopted the mission “to bring scientific knowledge to bear on major decisions affecting the world’s tropical forests and the people who depend on them”. This paper highlights an important topic in CIFOR’s research portfolio – forests’ diverse roles in climate change mitigation and adaptation and how forest governance ensures the equitable and sustainable wellbeing of people, both locally and globally. As one of the founding donor countries of CIFOR, the Government of Japan has consistently supported CIFOR’s research through Japanese scientists collaborating in research projects and/or serving as members of CIFOR’s Board. This paper, therefore, specifically highlights research projects funded directly by the Government of Japan, in particular.
The role of nationally determined contributions in transitions toward sustainable food systems
In December 2023, COP 28 convened in Dubai to assess progress toward the Paris Agreement’s climate goals of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5–2.0 °C by 2050. The summit’s first Global Stocktake revealed that current climate actions are insufficient, with emissions still climbing and a 43% reduction needed by 2030 to maintain a 50% chance of meeting the 1.5 °C target—equivalent to annual cuts matching COVID-19 lockdown levels. Despite these sobering findings, COP 28 marked some progress: it called for a transition from fossil fuels, set higher targets for renewables and energy efficiency, pledged methane reductions, and urged Parties to revise their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Notably, food systems were included in a consensus declaration for the first time, recognizing their critical role in climate mitigation. Responsible for roughly one-third of global emissions and driving biodiversity loss, pollution, and social inequities, food systems are central to achieving climate goals. However, COP 28 offered little concrete action beyond aspirational language. While the FAO released a roadmap for food system transformation, existing analyses already outline urgent priorities—from sustainable agriculture and land use reform to nutrition standards, waste reduction, equity, and financing—underscoring the need for a structured, actionable framework.
Towards comprehensive blue carbon accounting in Vietnam
Key messages
- The Government of Vietnam pays great attention to protecting mangrove ecosystems as they play a vital role in climate change mitigation. In 2024, the government issued Technical Guidelines for Biomass and Carbon Stock Estimation of Mangrove Forests (Decision No. 316/QD-LN-SXLN). These Guidelines aim to standardize estimates for biomass and carbon stock, and increase carbon storage from their restoration. This brief looks at required improvements to the Guidelines to help Vietnam join the blue carbon market.
- Better estimates of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from converted mangroves are needed to understand baseline emissions from anthropogenic disturbances in mangrove forests, as well as the impact of ending conversion of mangroves to other uses like aquaculture. To that end, better information on conversion and land-management practices is needed. This includes excavation depth for construction of aquaculture ponds and infrastructure development, nitrogen inputs for aquaculture production, and knowledge on crop types, drainage depth, and GHG budgets in mangroves converted to agriculture.
- More refined estimates of GHG emissions from converted mangroves can help shed light on baseline emissions from anthropogenic disturbances in mangrove forests, as well as the impact of ending conversion of mangroves to other uses like aquaculture.
- Strategic alignment with established blue carbon standards—such as the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) and the Gold Standard (GS) Framework—would enable Vietnam to harness the full potential of its mangrove ecosystems for high-integrity blue carbon crediting.
- Integrating remote sensing and machine learning techniques with species-level classification data can significantly enhance the accuracy and robustness of blue carbon accounting in mangrove ecosystems.
Synergizing Carbon Sequestration and Livelihood Improvement: Lessons from community-based crab silvofishery business model in South Sumatra, Indonesia
Action for climate change mitigation and livelihood improvement must be synergized to ensure its sustainability. A community-based mangrove restoration activity has been piloted in Marga Sungsang Village, Banyuasin regency, South Sumatra, Indonesia since late 2023 and adopted a crab silvofishery as a business model. In the last three decades, mangroves in the village have been degraded mainly due to agricultural expansion, and it often occurs in the frontier of the protected forest area. This paper aims to analyze the potential benefit of the mangrove crab silvofishery model for livelihood an ecosystem. The study was using the Business Model Canvas and Five Livelihood Capital as framework for business model development. According to cost-benefit analysis to the pilot action arena, the NPV for the model is USD 5,080/ha with investment support and USD 2,241/ha without investment, for 4 years period of business. The results shows that the model is profitable and has potential to provide additional income for the community compared to depend on carbon business model that provide negative NPV. Silvofishery contributes to ecosystem rehabilitation and climate change mitigation efforts through monitored and maintained mangrove planting, as well as to avoid disturbance to the protected areas through active roles and presence of community in the frontier. Institutional development and capacity building, including in business literacy, are identified as a key success factor for community-based intervention besides the technical assistance. This local evidence provides a global narrative for combating climate change and livelihood improvement.