This chapter assesses scientific evidence on the interconnections between forests and social‑economic resilience, focusing both on how forests bolster human systems and on the resilience of forests themselves. Strong evidence demonstrates that resilient forests help societies adapt to and mitigate global changes such as land‑use change, biodiversity loss, disaster risk, and climate change—pressures disproportionately driven by economic growth. Using a social‑ecological systems (SES) lens, the chapter highlights how forests respond to cascading stressors through resistance, recovery, or transformation, with resilience reducing uncertainty and safeguarding contributions to human well‑being. Forests provide products, ecosystem services, and cultural values that sustain livelihoods, health, biocultural diversity, and resilience across scales, including clean water, soil conservation, and carbon sequestration. At the global level, resilient forest SES play a critical role in preventing further transgression of planetary boundaries and mitigating impacts of thresholds already crossed. At meso‑scales, forests and forest‑human relationships are shaped by interconnected social and ecological processes, underscoring their importance for sustainable futures and attainment of the SDGs.
Tag: biodiversity conservation
Tree diversity and soil fertility interactions drive carbon storage in degraded cocoa landscapes of Côte d’Ivoire
Introduction: Understanding the ecological functioning of degraded cocoa landscapes is critical for restoring productivity and ecosystem services in West Africa. This study investigated how climate, geography, and land-use systems interact to shape tree diversity, soil fertility, and aboveground carbon (AGC) stocks across six cocoa-producing sites in Côte d’Ivoire.
Methods: Field inventories and soil sampling to 50 cm depth were conducted across gradients of climate (1,150–1,650 mm rainfall) and land-use systems (fallow, cocoa agroforestry, and monocropping). Mixed effects ANOVA, regression, and redundancy analyses were applied to test three hypotheses linking environmental gradients, tree diversity, and soil–carbon relationships.
Results: Land-use system had the strongest effect on tree diversity (P< 0.0001), with fallows supporting significantly higher richness (7.2 ± 0.51) and Shannon diversity (1.7 ± 0.05) than agroforestry or monocrop systems. Climate and site nested within climate also significantly influenced species abundance and evenness. Soil fertility indicators were primarily controlled by climate and geographic site, with significant effects on pH, exchangeable bases, and structural stability. Interactions between climate and land-use significantly affected soil pH, organic carbon, calcium, and cation exchange capacity. Stepwise regression identified aluminum, potassium, boron, and magnesium as key soil predictors of AGC (R² = 0.14; P< 0.0001), while species richness was the only diversity metric significantly associated with AGC (R² = 0.12; P< 0.0001).
Discussion: These results highlight the dominant role of species richness over evenness and abundance in sustaining soil fertility and carbon storage, emphasizing biodiversity conservation as a cornerstone of cocoa landscape restoration.
Tailored policies for perennial woody crops are crucial to advance sustainable development
Perennial woody crops, which are crucial to our diets and global economies, have the potential to play a major role in achieving multiple UN Sustainable Development Goals pertaining to biodiversity conservation, socio-economic development and climate change mitigation. However, this potential is hindered by insufficient scientific and policy attention on perennial woody crops, and by the intensification of perennial crop cultivation in the form of monocropping with high external inputs. In this Perspective, we highlight the potential of properly managed and incentivized perennial woody crops to support holistic sustainable development and urge scientists and policymakers to develop an effective agenda to better harness their benefits.
Mangrove-based carbon market projects: Current trends and future perspectives
Blue carbon ecosystems are among the largest carbon sinks in the world, with significant potential for carbon sequestration in their biomass, soils and sediments. Blue carbon credits offer companies the opportunity to offset their residual carbon emissions and achieve their carbon neutrality commitments. Mangrove-based carbon market projects (MbCMP) contribute greatly to the global supply of blue carbon credits in the voluntary carbon market (VCM). Thus, the current trends, challenges and opportunities intrinsic to MbCMP development, implementation and management need to be assessed on a global scale. We conducted a comprehensive systematic review and retrieved 260 articles, including 84 peer-reviewed articles and 176 gray literature from Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar and Google searches, from January 2010 to December 2024. In addition, we explored the databases of carbon certification standard registries to obtain up-to-date information of MbCMP. We present the results and discuss insights grouped into the following categories: (i) geographic distribution and current status of MbCMP, (ii) trends in development and growth, (iii) challenges faced, and (iv) proposed solutions to improve the quality and integrity of MbCMP. The recommendations include: (a) improving transparency and governance, (b) advancing risk management and adaptation, (c) building scientific and technical skills of stakeholders, (d) enhancing capacity building, community engagement and knowledge sharing, (e) strengthening policy support and institutions, (f) upscaling projects, (g) protecting complex and insecure land tenure systems, (h) safeguarding financial resources and equitable sharing of benefits, and (i) increasing accuracy of monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) data. Although significant challenges remain, the reduction in global mangrove loss, driven by recent improvements in conservation, protection and restoration initiatives, provides immense optimism for the growth and sustainability of the MbCMP sector with true benefits in terms of climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation.
Tree-based intervention typologies and improvements in refugee displacement regions
Concern about deforestation in contexts of refugee displacement is substantial. Tree-based interventions (TBIs) are efforts to plant trees, conserve trees, and/or facilitate tree regrowth. TBIs are implemented by non-governmental organizations in refugee displacement contexts to address landscape-level deforestation, soil erosion, and biodiversity loss while providing livelihood opportunities to participants. Although humanitarian stakeholders recommend TBIs in refugee-hosting regions, the diversity of TBI models and associated strengths and weaknesses are not well understood. This research focuses on five TBIs implemented in a northwest Uganda refugee settlement that include large-acre woodlot planting, household-level planting of trees yielding short-term products, and conservation site establishment to protect indigenous tree species. Interviews and focus-group discussions with TBI staff revealed that each intervention makes trade-offs in navigating five key challenges associated with TBI implementation in a refugee context: Obtaining access to land, providing short-term livelihood benefits to participants, gaining equitable involvement by gender, achieving environmental conservation goals, and successfully engaging community members. Significant differences were found between the strategies of TBIs implemented at home sites when compared to TBIs implemented at community sites. While TBIs implemented at home sites are intended to provide participants long-term access to tree products with clear user rights and enable women to grow trees alongside ongoing domestic activities, TBIs implemented at community sites can achieve large-scale environmental goals and provide cash-based employment opportunities to participants. An applied integrated landscape approach is recommended to maximize inter-program collaboration and collective benefits across programs, while realizing sustainable TBI impacts within complex socioecological refugee displacement contexts.
Drivers of medium- and large-bodied terrestrial mammal communities within a savannah–forest mosaic on Makushi and Wapichan customary lands in the Rupununi, Guyana
The savannah–forest mosaic of the Rupununi region of Guyana is a dispersal corridor between large tracts of intact Guiana Shield forests and a subsistence hunting ground for Indigenous Makushi and Wapichan communities. We conducted a camera-trap survey at 199 sites across four major forested habitat types and used multi-species occupancy modelling to determine regional-scale drivers of mammalian occupancy at both species and community levels, accounting for imperfect detection. We detected 47 savannah- and forest-dwelling mammal species, with the occupancy of medium- and large-bodied terrestrial mammal species (community occupancy) positively related to per cent forest cover and negatively to the presence of gallery forest habitat. The occupancy of 15 of 30 species was positively related to forest cover, suggesting the importance of maintaining forested habitat within the broader mosaic comprising savannahs and intermediate habitats for sustaining maximum mammal diversity. Jaguar Panthera onca occupancy was associated with the presence of livestock, and giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla occupancy was negatively associated with distance to the nearest road, both results of concern in relation to potential human–wildlife conflict. The probability of detecting terrestrial mammal species (community detectability) increased away from villages, as did the detectability of two large-bodied, hunted species, the lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris and collared peccary Pecari tajacu, potentially indicating the negative effects of subsistence and commercial hunting in this savannah mosaic habitat. We use our findings to discuss how management strategies for hunting, fire, timber harvest and agriculture within Indigenous titled lands could help ensure the sustainability of these traditional livelihood activities.
A global assemblage of regional prescribed burn records — GlobalRx
Prescribed burning (RxB) is a land management tool used widely for reducing wildfire hazard, restoring biodiversity, and managing natural resources. However, RxB can only be carried out safely and effectively under certain seasonal or weather conditions. Under climate change, shifts in the frequency and timing of these weather conditions are expected but analyses of climate change impacts have been restricted to select few regions partly due to a paucity of RxB records at global scale. Here, we introduce GlobalRx, a dataset including 204,517 RxB records from 1979–2023, covering 16 countries and 209 terrestrial ecoregions. For each record, we add a comprehensive suite of meteorological variables that are regularly used in RxB prescriptions by fire management agencies, such as temperature, humidity, and wind speed. We also characterise the environmental setting of each RxB, such as land cover and protected area status. GlobalRx enables the bioclimatic range of conditions suitable for RxB to be defined regionally, thus unlocking new potential to study shifting opportunities for RxB planning and implementation under future climate.
Gender dynamics of tropical wildmeat systems: A systematic map of women’s roles and influence
Wildmeat is a vital natural resource globally, which must be managed sustainably to avoid livelihood insecurity, species decline and biodiversity loss. Women have a pivotal role in harvesting, processing and distributing wildmeat, yet their contributions are often overlooked. Engaging women is essential for sustainable wildmeat management and equitable conservation, which requires an understanding of their roles and influence—an area that remains under-researched. To address this gap, we conducted a systematic map exploring gender dynamics in wildmeat systems. We searched six academic and grey literature directories using key terms in five languages and extracted data on women’s presence and absence in wildmeat systems from relevant publications. Our analysis of 334 publications across 54 countries identified 935 records of women’s presence and absence in 36 roles within tropical wildmeat systems. Women were most commonly consumers, traders and harvesters. Their presence and absence were strongly linked to their gender, such as domestic responsibilities assigned to women, or taboos against hunting and consuming wildmeat linked often with pregnancy and fertility. Women occupy vital roles in tropical wildmeat systems, from household consumption to commercial trade, influencing food security, community cohesion and market demand. Their contributions could support sustainable management, balancing conservation with livelihoods, but their participation in governance is poorly documented, risking their exclusion from decision-making. More research is also needed on gendered power dynamics and intersecting factors like age and ethnicity. We provide robust evidence linking gender and wildmeat and call for more gender-sensitive interventions that recognise women’s contributions, address their challenges and ensure their meaningful role in wildmeat governance. Women’s active participation in decision-making is essential for inclusive, equitable policies and interventions that promote both conservation outcomes and sustainable resource use.
Characterization and ecological importance of cocoa and oil palm agroforestry systems on the outskirts of a forest concession in southern Cameroon
Traditional production systems, agroforestry systems (SAFs) in southern Cameroon combine various types of trees of socio-economic interest which can contribute to the conservation of biodiversity. The objective of this work is to analyze the contribution of these agroforestry systems based on cocoa and oil palms in the sustainable management of peripheral resources of a forest concession in southern Cameroon. The methodological approach adopted consisted of carrying out socio-demographic surveys with 66 SAF operators using survey forms. A sampling rate of 10% was applied in seven villages in the Commune of Djoum. These interviews were supplemented by floristic inventories carried out on 69 plots of 40 × 60 m for a total area of 15.84 ha. The data collected allowed us to calculate various diversity and ecological indices, woody biomass and carbon stock, to which various statistical tests and Analyzes of variance were applied. The floristic potential is made up of 8,355 individuals divided into 177 species, 153 genera, 47 families, and classified into 3 woody groups, namely introduced, preserved and perennial species. The Shannon index between land use types varies from 2.15 bits in palm agroforests to 3.9 bits in forests while it is 2.81 bits in cocoa agroforests. The forests of the UFA and the peripheral SAFs share 42 forest species out of 63 inventoried species, ie 66.7% of forest species preserved in cocoa agroforests, proof of the effectiveness of the conservation potential of these SAFs in the region. The largest diameter class is [10–20] cm while the largest height class is the stratum of [5–10] m. Tree density and basal areas are highest in forests with 110.51 stems/ha and 42.08 m2/ha. Three types of architectural profiles for cocoa-based SAFs and two types of architectural profiles for oil palm-based SAFs were identified with a typology that shows 4 groups of TUTs based on ecological interactions. Forests are the type of land use that stores the most carbon (115.81 tC/ha) compared to 93.54 tC/ha for palm agroforest and 58.8 tC/ha for cocoa agroforests. Gradients of diversity, density and complexity vary with proximity to the forest concession. These results could be considered as effective and quantifiable tools for the certification of numerous cash crops such as cocoa and oil palm, which will make it possible to promote this endogenous knowledge scientifically and in the development of various programs and publications. technical notes.
A coffee corridor for biodiversity and livelihoods: climatic feasibility of shade coffee cultivation in western Rwanda
Around the world, restoration activities are underway to halt and reverse ecosystem degradation. A key challenge is to identify restoration approaches that work for both people and nature – i.e. approaches that can sustain livelihoods as well as biodiversity. Here, we focused on a mosaic landscape in western Rwanda. The landscape features two strictly protected remnant patches of Afromontane rainforest (Gishwati and Mukura forests), which are of high conservation value, but are isolated from one another by some 30 km of smallholder farmland. Connecting Gishwati and Mukura forests would be valuable from a biodiversity perspective, but to date, it is unclear how this could be done in a way that is consistent with local people’s livelihoods. To that end, we modelled the climatic suitability for growing shade coffee in the area between Gishwati and Mukura forests. We systematically evaluated plausible scenarios of future climate change and found that much of the study area is already suitable for growing coffee, and will become increasingly suitable in the future. In addition, we identified a series of local species that could be used as shade trees. With the study area becoming increasingly suitable for growing coffee over the coming decades, and with suitable shade trees being native to the study area, we argue there is high potential for establishing a shade coffee corridor between Gishwati and Mukura forests. Such a corridor, in turn, could provide a win-win opportunity for biodiversity conservation and local people’s livelihoods.