Oil palm plantations have rapidly expanded over the last 30 years, and now occupy 10% of the world’s permanent cropland. The growth of one of the world’s most efficient and versatile crop has alleviated poverty and increased food and energy security, but not without side effects. Losses of forest biodiversity hits the news. Although equally important, climate change issues have not reached this limelight. Data on greenhouse gas emissions associated with oil palm production is limited, especially for the potent greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N2O). This paper provides an overview of the data availability, and identifies knowledge gaps to steer future research to provide the data required for climate change models and more accurate international and national nitrous oxide emission accounting.
Tag: oil palms
Degradation increases peat greenhouse gas emissions in undrained tropical peat swamp forests
Tropical peat swamp degradation can modify net peat greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions even without drainage. However, current Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines do not provide default emission factors (EF) for anthropogenically-degraded undrained organic soils. We reviewed published field measurements of peat GHG fluxes in undrained undegraded and degraded peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia (SEA) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Degradation without drainage shifted the peat from a net CO2 sink to a source in both SEA (− 2.9 ± 1.8 to 4.1 ± 2.0 Mg CO2–C ha−1 yr−1) and LAC (− 4.3 ± 1.8 to 1.4 ± 2.2 Mg CO2–C ha−1 yr−1). It raised peat CH4 emissions (kg C ha−1 yr−1) in SEA (22.1 ± 13.6 to 32.7 ± 7.8) but decreased them in LAC (218.3 ± 54.2 to 165.0 ± 4.5). Degradation increased peat N2O emissions (kg N ha−1 yr−1) in SEA forests (0.9 ± 0.5 to 4.8 ± 2.3) (limited N2O data). It shifted peat from a net GHG sink to a source in SEA (− 7.9 ± 6.9 to 20.7 ± 7.4 Mg CO2-equivalent ha−1 yr−1) and increased peat GHG emissions in LAC (9.8 ± 9.0 to 24.3 ± 8.2 Mg CO2-equivalent ha−1 yr−1). The large observed increase in net peat GHG emissions in undrained degraded forests compared to undegraded conditions calls for their inclusion as a new class in the IPCC guidelines. As current default IPCC EF for tropical organic soils are based only on data collected in SEA ombrotrophic peatlands, expanded geographic representation and refinement of peat GHG EF by nutrient status are also needed.
Dynamics of Rural Economy: A Socio-Economic Understanding of Oil Palm Expansion and Landscape Changes in East Kalimantan, Indonesia
The fast-growing palm oil economy has stimulated a significant expansion of oil palm plantations in Indonesia. The uncontrolled development of large oil palm plantations has raised complex socio-ecological issues, including changes of ecological landscapes, organization of production, and farming household livelihood systems. For two oil palm villages with different ecological settings, this article describes changes in land cover, how production is organized, and the income structure changes due to rural economic development. The research used survey approaches and analysis of earth maps, assisted by data obtained from satellite imagery. A qualitative approach was also used to support a survey via in-depth interviews. The research was carried out in two oil palm economy-based villages of Kutai Kartanegara District, of the Province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia. The first village is located very close to the center of regional administration and has evolved into a non-farming economy. In contrast, the other village is more isolated and solely relies on farming activities. The study found that changes of land cover caused by oil palm expansion could be categorized into two types, concentrated and spotted, following the influence of oil palm investment activities. It was also found that organization of the production of most smallholders existed in two types of arrangements, partial and total integration of production. From the perspective of livelihood, two different types of income structures emerged, diversified and uniform. This article concludes that responses of smallholders to palm oil spread varied depending on the ecological setting, the existence of the already established plantation economy in the region, the capacity of the smallholders to diversify economic activities based on palm oil, and the exposure to external economic activities.
Bioenergy Policy: The Biodiesel Sustainability Dilemma in Indonesia
Palm oil-based biodiesel in Indonesia is facing critical issue with regard to its sustainability status in both upstream and downstream sides. International market of palm oil keeps questioning this sustainability standard of Indonesia oil palm. Three interrelated dimensions of sustainability should be fulfilled only if a product to gain growing market acceptance internationally, i.e. economically profitable, ecologically sound and socially acceptable. To determine the sustainability of Indonesia’s palm oil-based biodiesel, this paper pays attention in particular to measuring sustainability status of biodiesel in the upstream to downstream side along its supply chain. The analysis of the sustainability of palm oil-based biodiesel in Indonesia is done thoroughly all related activities on the upstream (agricultural-cultivation activities) up to the downstream (manufacturing activities) side. A rap-bioenergy approach, which included the use of MDS (multidimensional scaling) analyses is applied in the analysis. The results of these analyses show that palm oil-based biodiesel in Indonesia is facing serious sustainability status. Among other three parameters, ecological aspect/parameter is a very serious one. This is especially the case for cultivation activities. This paper concludes that if Indonesia desires international markets to accept the existence of palm oil-based biodiesel, then improvements in ecological aspect should be priority.
Commentary: Oil Palm Boom and Farm Household Diets in the Tropics
Forest or oil palm plantation? Interpretation of local responses to the oil palm promises in Kalimantan, Indonesia
Global land use/land cover change is dominated by the expansion of cash crops plantations, replacing natural ecosystems (Kongsager and Reenberg, 2012; Meyfroidt et al., 2013; Xiao et al., 2015; Su et al., 2016). In the tropics between 1980 and 2000, more than half of the new agricultural land was established at the expense of intact and disturbed forests (Lambin and Meyfroidt, 2011). International trade is an important factor in this process. In fact, countries that experience a net growth of forest areas such as Vietnam, Bhutan, France and China do so because through food and timber imports, they can ‘export’ deforestation and the expansion of cropland to countries with high deforestation rates such as Indonesia and Brazil (Meyfroidt et al., 2010). The situation where demands in distant places significantly influence local land use at the place of production is described as ‘land teleconnections’ (Haberl et al., 2009; Seto et al., 2010), or the displacement (or leakage) effect (Meyfroidt et al. 2010; Lambin and Meyfroidt, 2011).
Sustainable Palm Oil: Dissecting a Global Debate
Palm oil expansion in tropical forest margins captures headlines, primarily out of concern that encroachment to tropical forest causes environmental problem and ignites social issues [1]. Sustainability has to be understood in the wider context of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), rather than as primarily a plot-level ecological concern about persistence of production, to make sense of the debate that has become a very polarized and find ways forward. Cascading ecological and social issues have caused a loss of trust, (threats of) consumer boycotts and multiple standards and certification responses. Diverse sustainability issues have come up as part of a public issue-attention cycle with five recognisable stages [2]: A) Agenda setting, B) Better and widely shared understanding of what is at stake, C) Commitment to common principles, D) Details of devils derailing operations, devolved to (newly created or existing) formal institutions that handle implementation and associated budgets, and E) Efforts to monitor and evaluate effects. In Indonesia two phases of new establishment of palm oil coexist within a forest transition gradient: (i) (industry-led) expansion into new forest margins with many social and ecological consequences; and (ii) (often farmer-led) conversion of existing agroforestry and tree crop (often rubber-based) or pasture economies in mosaic landscapes. External consumer concerns refer to the expansion phase, rather than to production sustainability or issues of smallholder concern. However, certification standards are only partially adjusted to the latter. After a ‘voluntary industry standards’ phase of differentiation with and shifting blame to non-certified others [3], government involvement in Malaysia and Indonesia suggests that standards and certification can trickle down to enforceable good practice standards for all. This can learn from past ineffective policies that did not address the real issues in local context [4]. On the other hand, subnational jurisdictional entities are the scale at which oil palm production can be balanced with other goals, such as forest conservation and smallholder welfare. This needs a supportive and clear national policy support that combines clarity on forest protection (as in the now permanent moratorium), with support for risk-reducing diversified smallholder oil palm production systems [5,6] and international communication that acknowledges past problems but shows Indonesia is ready to move on, connecting all the dots of sustainable development goals.
Village field schools for sustainable oil palm smallholders
CIFOR-ICRAF (Center for International Forestry Research-World Agroforestry Center), in partnership with Jikalahari (Jaringan Kerja Penyelamat Hutan Riau or Riau Forest Rescue Network), is working closely with the Pelalawan Regency Government to improve sustainability practices in palm oil production and trade through the Sekolah Kampung Petani Sawit Lestari or Village Field Schools for Sustainable Oil Palm Smallholders programme.
Green consumer behaviour influences Indonesian palm oil sustainability
Palm oil businesses affect livelihoods and the environment, particularly forests, with land-use change and climate change impacts. This research aimed to develop a model for understanding the influences of global trade and political economy factors on palm oil sustainability and livelihoods in Indonesia. It combined systematic review with structural equation modelling through a model called POPETS (Palm Oil Political Economy and Trade Structural equation model). The study revealed that palm oil sustainability is defined by employment opportunities and no deforestation, while livelihoods are defined by household income. Trade and political economy factors (structures, institutions and actors) significantly influence the sustainability of palm oil. Trade has indirect effects on sustainability and livelihoods, while actors have a direct effect on sustainability. There is also a positive correlation between sustainability and livelihoods. These findings suggest the importance of synergizing global trade effects and national government roles to advance palm oil sustainability in the producing countries.
Palm oil businesses affect livelihoods and the environment, particularly forests, with land-use change and climate change impacts. This research aimed to develop a model for understanding the influences of global trade and political economy factors on palm oil sustainability and livelihoods in Indonesia. It combined systematic review with structural equation modelling through a model called POPETS (Palm Oil Political Economy and Trade Structural equation model). The study revealed that palm oil sustainability is defined by employment opportunities and no deforestation, while livelihoods are defined by household income. Trade and political economy factors (structures, institutions and actors) significantly influence the sustainability of palm oil. Trade has indirect effects on sustainability and livelihoods, while actors have a direct effect on sustainability. There is also a positive correlation between sustainability and livelihoods. These findings suggest the importance of synergizing global trade effects and national government roles to advance palm oil sustainability in the producing countries.