Agricultural intensification on existing arable lands has been proposed to reduce deforestation in the Congo Basin, although the effects of intensification on soil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have not yet been investigated. Here, we present the first field study to quantify the trade-offs between yield and GHG emissions across different intensification options in this region. We show that intercropping with nitrogen-fixing beans not only provided additional protein-rich food but also increased maize yields by 1.4-fold while leaving N2O emissions and the soil CH4 sink unchanged compared to unfertilized maize. In contrast, a moderate mineral fertilizer application of 66 kg N ha−1 yr−1 doubled yields, but reduced the soil CH4 sink strength, and increased N2O emissions fivefold to about 4 kg N2O-N ha−1 yr−1. These N2O emissions also exceeded those of natural forests by more than a factor of three, highlighting the GHG cost of mineral fertilizer use in addition to CO2 emissions from soil organic carbon loss following land conversion. In sum, intercropping with nitrogen-fixing beans had the lowest yield-scaled GHG emissions and can help to address protein malnutrition in regions with limited access to mineral fertilizers or particularly high N2O emissions.
Tag: deforestation
Continuity and evolution of ASB – Brazil user needs: report of consultations with stakeholders in Brazil, 24 july to 5 August, 2003
Deforestation in Brazilian Amazon reached one of its highest levels in 2002.Most deforestation took place in the ‘deforestation arc’ along the souther parts of the armazon,bet no area was unaffected by this surge in forest clearing and burning.While nobody expected deforestation to stop,this surge took most people by supprise.Reasons for the spike in burning were often site or state-specific,but pent up demand for cleared land ,the slow return of economic growth,social instability and political uncertainity all seemed to have combined to both increase the demand for cleared land and reduce the expected political and economic cost associated with converting forest to agriculture.Agencies at all levels responsible for monitoring and controling forest conservation and redoubling their efforts to do so, with support from international community. This spike in deforestation,with its anfortunate environmental effects, may provide ASB with a window of opportunity for establishing itself more prominently in the research and policymaking communities in the Amazon region.
Spatial Dimensions of Existing Conservation Areas and Other Land Uses in the Congo Basin
Remote sensing (RS) techniques and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for earth observation have significantly improved the ability to map and measure forest composition, estimate height and biomass, detect degradation and deforestation, implement land use planning, track land use changes as well as monitoring the implementation and respect of land development policies at a finer scale. Machine learning approaches further enhance these capabilities by integrating multiple data sources to produce improved maps of forest attributes and track changes over time. Recent advances in remote sensing techniques and artificial intelligence (AI) now enable detailed mapping and modelling of conservation areas especially the demarcation of High Valued Conservation Forest. National governments follow an administrative procedure for national map design, validation, and standardization. National governments together with the national mapping institutions select particular government officials, the private sector, civil society organizations, and foreign partners to produce national maps. On the other hand, scientists use a rigorous methodology that combines cutting-edge tools and peer review approaches. Even if some of the maps mentioned have not undergone the validation process by the various governments of the sub-region, they are widely used or referred to in international negotiations and discussions. Adopting innovative policies on mapping (Indonesia’s one map policy, Rwanda National land registry) and spatial data management (Geoportal for the Region, The INSPIRE Directive) will be very helpful in planning and conserving the Congo Basin. Non the less, Gabon, the DRC and Cameroon have made exceptions by producing and using renowned National Geoportal.
Forest policy diagnostics for the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
This report is part of a wider inquiry into the intertwined challenges of climate change, deforestation and policy design, where global environmental goals depend on highly local realities. Forest loss remains a major driver of emissions, but its causes and trajectories vary widely across regions, shaped by governance systems, economic pressures and social dynamics. Moving beyond generic prescriptions, this study adopts a context-sensitive perspective that asks not only what policies exist, but how and where they are likely to be effective. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, vast tropical forests remain largely intact, yet face growing pressure from small-scale agriculture, fuelwood demand and infrastructure expansion. Unlike contexts dominated by industrial drivers, deforestation here is often diffuse, incremental and closely tied to livelihoods, making policy design particularly challenging. The report applies a diagnostic framework that links patterns (archetypes) of forest change with the behavioural mechanisms that policies aim to influence, including incentives, regulation, social dynamics and capacity constraints. This approach helps identify which interventions are most relevant in different settings, from remote forest areas to emerging frontiers. The DRC’s case highlights the importance of aligning forest conservation with development needs, strengthening governance while recognizing structural limitations. By grounding policy analysis in context, the report offers a way to navigate complexity and support more effective, equitable strategies to reduce deforestation.
Forest policy diagnostics for Brazil
This report is part of a wider inquiry into the intertwined challenges of climate change, deforestation and policy design, where global environmental goals depend on highly local realities. Forest loss remains a major driver of emissions, but its causes and trajectories vary widely across regions, shaped by governance systems, economic pressures and social dynamics. Moving beyond generic prescriptions, this study adopts a context-sensitive perspective that asks not only what policies exist, but how and where they are likely to be effective. In Brazil, home to the largest share of the Amazon rainforest, deforestation has followed a striking trajectory—marked by rapid expansion, periods of strong decline, and more recent fluctuations—reflecting shifts in political priorities, enforcement capacity and market conditions. This variability makes Brazil a critical case for understanding how policy mixes perform over time and across changing contexts. The report applies a diagnostic framework that connects spatial patterns (archetypes) of forest change with the behavioural mechanisms that policies seek to influence, from strict enforcement and monitoring to incentives and supply chain pressures. By examining how these instruments interact with different deforestation contexts, it highlights why similar approaches can succeed or fail depending on where they are applied. Brazil’s experience underscores both the power of coordinated policy action and the variation in outcomes over time, offering important lessons for designing more resilient and adaptive strategies to curb deforestation.
Forest policy diagnostics for Peru
This report is part of a wider inquiry into the intertwined challenges of climate change, deforestation and policy design, where global environmental goals depend on highly local realities. Forest loss remains a major driver of emissions, but its causes and trajectories vary widely across regions, shaped by governance systems, economic pressures and social dynamics. Moving beyond generic prescriptions, this study adopts a context-sensitive perspective that asks not only what policies exist, but how and where they are likely to be effective. In Peru, where much of the territory is still covered by relatively intact Amazonian forests, deforestation is less widespread but highly concentrated in specific frontier regions, often linked to smallholder agriculture and land-use change. This uneven geography makes it particularly important to match policy tools to the conditions on the ground. The report applies a diagnostic framework that connects patterns (archetypes) of forest change with the behavioural mechanisms that policies aim to influence—whether through incentives, regulation, social expectations or capacity-building. In doing so, it offers a structured way to understand why similar interventions can produce very different outcomes depending on context. Peru’s experience illustrates both the strengths of a comprehensive legal and institutional framework and the persistent challenges of implementation, coordination and targeting. By situating policy within the landscapes and actors it seeks to shape, the report provides an entry point into a more nuanced, evidence-based approach to reducing deforestation.
Forest policy diagnostics for Indonesia
This report is part of a wider inquiry into the intertwined challenges of climate change, deforestation and policy design, where global environmental goals depend on highly local realities. Forest loss remains a major driver of emissions, but its causes and trajectories vary widely across regions, shaped by governance systems, economic pressures and social dynamics. Moving beyond generic prescriptions, this study adopts a context-sensitive perspective that asks not only what policies exist, but how and where they are likely to be effective. In Indonesia, a vast archipelagic country with highly heterogeneous forest landscapes, deforestation has been both extensive and uneven, concentrated in long-established agricultural frontiers while large tracts of relatively intact forest remain elsewhere. This diversity makes it a critical case for understanding how policies interact with different ecological and institutional contexts. The report applies a diagnostic framework that connects spatial patterns (archetypes) of forest change with the behavioural mechanisms that policies aim to influence, from enforcement and regulatory controls to incentives, social norms and capacity-building. By examining how these instruments align with specific deforestation contexts, it highlights why policy effectiveness depends not only on design but also on where and how interventions are deployed. Indonesia’s experience—particularly the marked decline in deforestation since the mid-2010s—offers valuable insights into the potential of coordinated policy mixes, while also revealing the ongoing challenges of governance, land-use pressures and sustaining long-term change.
Livestock and deforestation in Central America in the 1980s and 1990s: a policy perspective
This study analyses seven factors used to explain the conversion of forest to pasture in Central America between 1979 and 1994: 1) favourable markets for livestock products; 2) subsidised credit and road construction; 3) land-tenure policies; 4) limited technological change in livestock production; 5) policies which reduce timber values; 6) reduced levels of political violence; and 7) characteristics specific to cattle which make conversion attractive. Deforestation rates in Central America declined in the 1980s, but remained high. After expanding rapidly, cattle population and pasture area have stagnated, although they continue to expand on the humid tropical frontier. Strong markets for beef and dairy products stimulated livestock expansion and deforestation in the 1960s and 1970s after which markets for livestock products became less favourable, which led to lower investment. During the 1960s and 1970s large government subsidies for cattle raising encouraged forest conversion. Since then credit subsidies have been reduced, but subsidised public road construction continues, causing widespread deforestation. Land speculation is another reason why pasture expansion has continued in agricultural frontier areas. There is little evidence that technological progress in livestock production reduces deforestation. Nor is it clear that removing policies which discriminate against forest production would have a major positive effect in this regard. The author proposes: 1) restrictions on road construction and livestock credit in agricultural frontier areas; 2) increased enforcement of land-use restrictions in protected areas; 3) the expansion of land rights for indigenous peoples; 4) stronger restrictions on the titling of natural lands by large landholders; 5) pilot efforts to establish local land taxes with higher rates for pasture and crop lands than for forest; and 6) economic incentives for secondary forest regeneration and research on pasture degradation in Central America.
Rates and causes of deforestation in Indonesia: towards a resolution of the ambiguities
There have been several major research efforts on the rate and causes of Indonesia’s deforestation in recent years and much associated literature, but there is still no consensus in the research community on these issues. This paper reviews the areas of uncertainty and confusion, and proposes questions that must be answered to get a better grasp of the subject. Among the key questions are: (1) How are we to define “forest”, “deforestation” and “agency” in the context of Indonesia? (2) What are the socio-economic characteristics and land-use practices of the various agents that have been lumped under the term “shifting cultivation” ? (3) Is the relationship between increasing population density and loss of forest cover causal or incidental? (4) Why do some concessionaires appear to manage their sites relatively well, while many others do not? (5) What have been the net forest cover effects of macro-economic restructuring and changes of commodity prices since the early 1980s? Guidelines are proposedfor improved research on the rate and causes of forest cover change. The paper closes noting the need to rise above a tendency to seek mono-causal explanations.Cogent explanations will necessarily be complex, since the causes reside in long-standing and broad socio-economic forces.
Integrating satellite-based forest disturbance alerts improves detection timeliness and confidence
Satellite-based near-real-time forest disturbance alerting systems have been widely used to support law enforcement actions against illegal and unsustainable human activities in tropical forests. The availability of multiple optical and radar-based forest disturbance alerts, each with varying detection capabilities depending mainly on the satellite sensor used, poses a challenge for users in selecting the most suitable system for their monitoring needs and workflow. Integrating multiple alerts holds the potential to address the limitations of individual systems. We integrated radar-based RAdar for Detecting Deforestation (RADD) (Sentinel-1), and optical-based Global Land Analysis and Discovery Sentinel-2 (GLAD-S2) and GLAD-Landsat alerts using two confidence rulesets at ten 1° sites across the Amazon Basin. Alert integration resulted in faster detection of new disturbances by days to months, and also shortened the delay to increased confidence. An increased detection rate to an average of 97% when combining alerts highlights the complementary capabilities of the optical and cloud-penetrating radar sensors in detecting largely varying drivers and environmental conditions, such as fires, selective logging, and cloudy circumstances. The most improvement was observed when integrating RADD and GLAD-S2, capitalizing on the high temporal observation density and spatially detailed 10 m Sentinel-1 and 2 data. We introduced the highest confidence class as an addition to the low and high confidence classes of the individual systems, and showed that this displayed no false detection. Considering spatial neighborhood during alert integration enhanced the overall labeled alert confidence level, as nearby alerts mutually reinforced their confidence, but it also led to an increased rate of false detections. We discuss implications of this study for the integration of multiple alert systems. We demonstrate that alert integration is an important data preparation step to make use of multiple alerts more user-friendly, providing stakeholders with reliable and consistent information on new forest disturbances in a timely manner. Google Earth Engine code to integrate various alert datesets is made openly available.