Projects aimed at reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) have expanded in Central Africa following carbon certification standards, which were intended to demonstrate the feasibility of payments and rewards earned depending on a measured quantity of avoided deforestation. We used storytelling as a communication concept to analyse the narratives of five main certification standards that accompanied the implementation of REDD+ projects in Central Africa. Our analysis focuses on two storylines: the measurement of avoided deforestation, and payments or rewards. The examination of official documents disseminated by certification standards and the results from a survey of REDD+ stakeholders highlighted a gap between these promises and reality. Our findings show that carbon standards have diffused an idyllic view of REDD+, simplifying methods of measuring avoided deforestation and promising payments, co-benefits and sustainable development. Unkept promises result in disappointment and declining enthusiasm on the part of those involved in REDD+ projects at an early stage.
Tag: deforestation
Fostering natural forest regeneration on former agricultural land through economic and policy interventions
Under suitable conditions, deforested land used for agricultural crops or pastures can revert to forest through the assisted or unassisted process of natural regeneration. These naturally regenerating forests conserve biodiversity, provide a wide array of ecosystem goods and services, and support rural economies and livelihoods. Based on studies in tropical and temperate forest ecosystems, we summarize cases where natural regeneration is occurring in agricultural landscapes around the world and identify the socio-ecological factors that favor its development and affect its qualities, outcomes and persistence. We describe how the economic and policy context creates barriers for the development, persistence, and management of naturally regenerating forests, including perverse outcomes of policies intended to enhance protection of native forests. We conclude with recommendations for specific economic and policy interventions at local, national, and global scales to enhance forest natural regeneration and to promote the sustainable management of regrowth forests on former agricultural land while strengthening rural communities and economies.
Forest or oil palm plantation? Interpretation of local responses to the oil palm promises in Kalimantan, Indonesia
Global land use/land cover change is dominated by the expansion of cash crops plantations, replacing natural ecosystems (Kongsager and Reenberg, 2012; Meyfroidt et al., 2013; Xiao et al., 2015; Su et al., 2016). In the tropics between 1980 and 2000, more than half of the new agricultural land was established at the expense of intact and disturbed forests (Lambin and Meyfroidt, 2011). International trade is an important factor in this process. In fact, countries that experience a net growth of forest areas such as Vietnam, Bhutan, France and China do so because through food and timber imports, they can ‘export’ deforestation and the expansion of cropland to countries with high deforestation rates such as Indonesia and Brazil (Meyfroidt et al., 2010). The situation where demands in distant places significantly influence local land use at the place of production is described as ‘land teleconnections’ (Haberl et al., 2009; Seto et al., 2010), or the displacement (or leakage) effect (Meyfroidt et al. 2010; Lambin and Meyfroidt, 2011).
The context of REDD+ in Myanmar: Drivers, agents and institutions
The Republic of the Union of Myanmar is a forest resource-rich country, but is also facing serious deforestation and forest degradation problems. Currently, Myanmar’s forest still covers more than 40% of the country’s land area (Aung (2001) but 70% of its population live in rural areas, and the agricultural sector is the main contributor to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) (30%) (World Bank 2014). The country faces the all-too-common dilemma of how to develop its economy while at the same time curbing environmental degradation and contributing to carbon emissions reduction. In 2013, Myanmar adopted a REDD+ program and started its preparatory phase. Myanmar established and developed its National Forest Monitoring System (NFMS) and Reference Emission Levels (RELs) for REDD+ following the guidance and modalities set out by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Implementing REDD+ requires political commitment to address direct and indirect drivers of deforestation, an adequate funding mechanism that is based on a thorough analysis of all costs and benefits, a transparent and equitable benefit-sharing mechanism, and a participatory decision-making approach in which all stakeholders can take part in REDD+. The Global Comparative Study on REDD+, together with its country partners, is compiling profiles of 14 countries to better understand the socioeconomic contexts in which REDD+ policies and processes emerge.
The impacts of degradation, deforestation and restoration on mangrove ecosystem carbon stocks across Cambodia
Mangrove forest conservation can help reduce global C emissions. Despite this benefit to climate change mitigation and adaptation, mangrove forests are being deforested or degraded at an alarming rate, though restoration efforts may offset these losses. The impacts of deforestation to C stocks are relatively intuitive and result in significant decreases in C stocks. It remains unclear how degradation from selective harvesting of trees affects C stocks or how effective restoration efforts are at restoring C stocks. Furthermore, total ecosystem C (TEC) stocks of pristine mangroves can significantly vary spatially. To address these issues, we conducted an intensive, national assessment of mangrove forests across Cambodia using a grid approach to: 1) examine how land use land cover (i.e., pristine, deforested, degraded, and restored forests) impacts TEC stocks, and 2) how TEC stocks vary spatially across the country. TEC stocks from deforested mangroves were always lower than pristine forests, resulting in an overall loss of 60% C (480 Mg C ha−1). However, TEC stocks from degraded and 25-year-old restored mangroves forests did not differ from pristine forests. Mean TEC in mangroves was 784.7 ± 30.1 Mg C ha−1, decreasing from 957.2 ± 32.8 Mg C ha−1 in the northern region to 628.9 ± 33.1 Mg C ha−1 in the central region to 386.2 ± 19.1 Mg C ha−1 in the southern region of Cambodia. Intensive sampling in mangroves across Cambodia verified impacts of deforestation reported elsewhere, revealed the lack of degradation impacts on TEC stocks, and demonstrated the effectiveness of restoration on TEC stocks after only 25 years. Our gridded sampling approach was able to capture spatial variability across Cambodia and provide a more realistic TEC stock information that can be used for national reporting or participation in C markets.
Preparing Vietnam for new rules on international market: Preparing Vietnam for new rules on international market
Deforestation-free production will be a requirement of the global market from now through 2030. More than 1,000 financial institutions (e.g. banks, trusts, donors) and 600 multinational companies have pledged to produce and supply zero-deforestation agricultural products, and these establishments (financial institutions and multinational companies) are developing a process of testing, screening and certification for service providers and countries that produce or export agroforestry products. The governments of European countries, the Americas and Australia are also aggressively building a legal framework to monitor and verify that imported goods have not resulted in deforestation or forest degradation.
In Vietnam, 92 domestic and foreign companies from 21 fields and industries have signed commitments to achieve zero deforestation by 2020. These industries include: fashion (apparel and footwear); agriculture; cosmetics and personal care; food and agriculture; retail chains; home construction (furniture and flooring, and renovation supplies); consumer goods; paper and packaging; printing and publishing; and automotive industry (rubber, automobile manufacturing). These companies contribute greatly to the national GDP and local economic development, and are major buyers of agricultural products including coffee, wood, soybeans and poultry.
However, businesses in Vietnam are not prepared to adapt the supply chain of agroforestry products to this trend; they require knowledge and skills to face the new market requirements. Without further research and long-term planning, Vietnam’s agroforestry products industry is at risk of losing market share to fierce international competition, leading to enormous economic losses for the country.
The government needs to develop a legal framework to support and monitor companies that meet deforestation-free commitments, while building the capacity of stakeholders to respond to the requirements of new markets, in order to ensure a solid position for agroforestry products and their sustainable contribution to the national economy over the next 30 years.
Lao PDR’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC): Progress, opportunities, and challenges in the forestry sector
Key messages
- Lao People’s Democratic Republic (hereafter “Lao PDR”) was the first country in Asia to submit its NDC, doing so in September 2015. Building on national development and environmental protection policies, the country aimed to make full use of existing institutional capacity and financial resources, and embed NDC targets in existing policies and planning.
- To date, NDC results have been mixed. The initial target for 90% of the rural population having access to electricity has already been exceeded with the figure now at 95%, while the forestry target of 70% forest cover has yet to be achieved.
- Political commitment is strong. The Government designated the Department of Climate Change (DCC) under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) to become the national focal point for coordinating NDC implementation in Lao PDR. The Government has also issued a number of related laws and regulations, such as the new forestry law in June 2019 and the Decree on Climate Change in September 2019.
- Major challenges impeding the country’s efforts to achieve its forestry sector NDC targets are persistent and similar to those identified 10 years ago. These are: policies and measures to address major drivers of deforestation and forest degradation not being fully implemented on the ground; poor coordination between key sectors; a lack of accurate and available data and credible methodologies for measuring outcomes; inadequate institutional arrangements for sustainable forest management and community participation; as well as a lack of available funds for implementing proposed activities.
- In order to achieve and enhance current NDC target ambitions, policies, measures and enabling conditions for transformational change (e.g. funding availability, national ownership, cross-sector collaboration, results-based payment mechanisms, and clarity over carbon and non-carbon benefits) need to be in place.
- Knowledge gaps that need addressing in order to provide credible evidence for the Government and donors to revise and adapt NDC targets, and better implement the NDC include: rigorous impact assessments of existing policies and initiatives on forest protection and development outcomes; and an integrated sectoral assessment on how realistic and feasible NDC targets could be achieved in supporting the National Green Growth Strategy and Sustainable Development Goals by mainstreaming Climate Change into national socio-economic development plans, vis-à-vis Paris Agreement ambition targets in each period.
Space-time detection of deforestation, forest degradation and regeneration in montane forests of Eastern Tanzania
Naturally isolated montane forests in East Africa are hotspots of biodiversity, often characterised by high species endemism, and are fundamental contributors to water services. However, they are located in areas highly suitable for agriculture, making them a prime target for agricultural activities. The Eastern Arc Mountains (EAM) in Eastern Tanzania are within the target regions for agricultural development under the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SAGCOT). However, forest monitoring initiatives that track long-term forest dynamics and the ecological impact of current agricultural development policies on forests, are lacking. Here, we use the STEF (Space-Time Extremes and Features) algorithm and Landsat time series to track forest disturbances (deforestation and degradation) and forest gains (regeneration) as spatio-temporal events over seventeen years (2001-2017) in the montane forests of the Mvomero District in Tanzania. We found that 27 % (~ 20.487 ha) of montane forests were disturbed between 2001 and 2017, mainly led by deforestation (70 %). Small-scale crop farms with maize, banana, and cassava crops, were the most planted on deforested areas. Most disturbances occurred at lower elevation (lowland montane), but there was an increasing shift to higher elevations in recent years (2011-2017). Forest disturbances exclusively occurred at small spatial scales, a pattern similar to other forest montane landscapes in Africa, which lowers detection capabilities in global forest loss products. Our locally calibrated and validated deforestation map (Producer’s accuracy = 80 %; User’s accuracy = 78 %) shows a gross underestimation of forest cover loss (>10 000 ha) by global forest loss products in these mountainous forest landscapes. Overall, we found few areas undergoing forest regeneration, with only 9 % of the disturbed forest regenerating over 17 years. Long-term conversion to cropland prevented regeneration in the lowlands, with regeneration mainly happening at higher elevations. However, the shift of deforestation and forest degradation to higher elevations may challenge high elevation regeneration trends, leaving the remaining blocks of montane forest in the Mvomero District at a risk of degradation and disappearance. Without effective forest conservation measures, market-driven agricultural development is likely to trigger an expansion of cropland at the expense of forests to meet the increased demand for the agricultural products promoted, with negative impact on biodiversity, carbon sequestration and water services.
REDD+ in theory and practice: How lessons from local projects can inform jurisdictional approaches
Local projects for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) were frequently designed as pilot actions to inform future upscaled initiatives. Drawing lessons from these project experiences may thus help improve the design of jurisdictional programs, which is the focus of REDD+ implementation in the Paris Agreement. Here we first scrutinize how REDD+ was historically conceptualized, the most prominent model being that of a multitier payments for environmental services (PES) scheme of “passing on” carbon mitigation responsibilities and credits across scales, from international buyers to forestland owners. Then we analyze two REDD+ project databases, ID-RECCO and GCS-REDD, using principal component and regression analysis. Among 226 conservation-oriented REDD+ projects, only 88 had planned conditional incentives to landowners–the key feature of PES. Intentions to apply PES rose after 2007, and correlate strongly with efforts to seek certification, including as a benefit-sharing strategy, and with carbon sales. Zooming closer into a portfolio of 23 local REDD+ projects that were actually implemented on the ground, we found project implementers reported conditional incentives as potentially being both the most promising and effective intervention. Likewise, treated households identified conditional incentives as comparatively effective in changing their land-use plans, while also providing above-average welfare returns. Still, these conditional incentives remained underutilized in implementation, with only one-third of the treatment intensity compared to non-conditional incentives. Project implementers cited insecure land tenure and uncertain REDD+ financial flows as key impediments to using conditional incentives. The original vision of a multitier PES model for REDD+ thus ran into both supply and demand side problems, jointly explaining the discrepancy between REDD+ theory and practice. Since jurisdictional approaches to REDD+ so far also receive only hesitant and slow climate financing flows, coming mostly in non-conditional form, and operate under forest-frontier governance with similar tenure restrictions, jurisdictions would seem well-advised to plan for conditional landowner incentives only in scenarios where the preconditions for PES are met. Implementers of jurisidictional approaches may also want to avoid conceptualizing their new model too narrowly and prescriptively, as was arguably the case with the conceptualization of REDD+ as a multitier PES scheme.
Certifying Borneo’s Forest Landscape: Implementation Processes of Forest Certification in Sarawak
Sarawak has a history of imposing political constraints on natural resource governance. Forest certification is expected to bring important changes to forestry in Sarawak, heralding a new era of forest management. However, the effects of a new environmental regulatory system have yet to be adequately examined, particularly the social consequences of certification which vary depending on the standards employed, audit procedures and the levels of stakeholder participation. This chapter examines experiences to date with forest certification in Malaysia, specifically certification by the Malaysian Timber Certification Council (MTCC) in Sarawak, to investigate the effects of certification on both forest management and rural communities. It is therefore important to focus attention on issues related to both indigenous peoples’ land and natural resources use. The example of Malaysia and the divergent experiences in different states illustrates that the situation on the ground can vary greatly, even with the same forest certification scheme and within the same country.