Extensive ecosystem restoration is increasingly seen as being central to conserving biodiversity1 and stabilizing the climate of the Earth2. Although ambitious national and global targets have been set, global priority areas that account for spatial variation in benefits and costs have yet to be identified. Here we develop and apply a multicriteria optimization approach that identifies priority areas for restoration across all terrestrial biomes, and estimates their benefits and costs. We find that restoring 15% of converted lands in priority areas could avoid 60% of expected extinctions while sequestering 299 gigatonnes of CO2—30% of the total CO2 increase in the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution. The inclusion of several biomes is key to achieving multiple benefits. Cost effectiveness can increase up to 13-fold when spatial allocation is optimized using our multicriteria approach, which highlights the importance of spatial planning. Our results confirm the vast potential contributions of restoration to addressing global challenges, while underscoring the necessity of pursuing these goals synergistically. © 2020, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.
Tag: cost analysis
Effect of rural farmers’ access to information on price and profits in Cameroon
In rural land-locked areas of Africa, access to information about market prices can have a fundamental effect on the prices and profits of farmers. However, it is not clear how farmers organise to have better access to market and what role telephones can play in reducing access to information. A semi-structured questionnaire which served as a tool for data collection was administered to 225 farmers in Pinyin Clan of the North-West region. Descriptive statistics and the Analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to evaluate price and profit gap between farmers with access to information, farmers who sell through middlemen, farmers who sell through group sales and farmers who did not use any of the above options. The results revealed that there was a significant price and profit gap between farmers who have access to information through mobile phones, who organised and sell through group sales. There was equally a significant price and profit gap between vegetable farmers who sell directly to the market and those who sell through middlemen. Access to information in rural areas can significantly increase farmers’ incomes and livelihoods, thus the use of mobile phones and group sales can facilitate farmers bargaining power. © 2020 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
Tracking public investments in trees on farms in Rwanda – Analysis of Natonal Budget Allocatons (2015–2019)
Trees on Farms (TonF) or agroforestry is central to achieving the objectives of the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. TonF are pivotal in mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change as they protect ecosystems by sequestering carbon. In 2011 the Government of Rwanda pledged to restore 2 million hectares of deforested and degraded land, as part of the Bonn Challenge. Increasing TonF is one of the strategies that can contribute to meeting this pledge. Under this framework the Government of Rwanda has recognized the importance of Trees on Farms and has set up a task force to coordinate the implementation of agroforestry activities.
The objective of this study was to track Rwanda’s public expenditure flows towards TonF priorities; their share in the national budget and how much is spent. Being able to reconcile expenditures on specific activities such as TonF requires reliable mechanisms that can be used to monitor and track funds allocated and spent on initiatives such as the climate ambition of nations that have pledged to restore landscapes and conserve biodiversity during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Agroforestry tends to cut across the mandates of the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment and their agencies. As the two ministries have different mandates, there is not much coordination of agroforestry-related activities. This makes it difficult to track and monitor the actual expenditures.
The study estimated that over USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets between 2015 and 2019. More specifically, the national budget allocations to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) and TonF were approximately 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, over the five-year period. Yet their parent sectors – agriculture and environment (forestry) – contributed significant amounts to Rwanda’s gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. 19.3 percent for agriculture, of which only 1.6 percent was reinvested in agriculture; and 5.5 percent for environment (forestry), of which only 0.5 percent was reinvested in environmental management. An estimated USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets in this period. Frequent institutional mergers and a lack of coordinating mechanism also had a restrictive impact on funding for land restoration, the study found.
Two key recommendations were made by the study. First, budget allocations need to be made more visible in the national expenditure system by labeling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry.’ This should then enable a critical assessment of whether the allocated funds are sufficient to contribute to broader national targets, while consideration should be given to how donor budgets can be best used to supplement national activities. Second, the authors proposed the allocations for SMNR and TonF in the national budget to be increased to at least 10 percent and 5 percent, from the current levels of 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively. They also called for an improved visibility of TonF activities and funding in the budgets of relevant institutions and at district level, by clearly labelling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry’ for better monitorable allocations to TonF and their contribution to the realisation of the country pledge to climate change as part of the Bonn Challenge.
Trees on Farms (TonF) or agroforestry is central to achieving the objectives of the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. TonF are pivotal in mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change as they protect ecosystems by sequestering carbon. In 2011 the Government of Rwanda pledged to restore 2 million hectares of deforested and degraded land, as part of the Bonn Challenge. Increasing TonF is one of the strategies that can contribute to meeting this pledge. Under this framework the Government of Rwanda has recognized the importance of Trees on Farms and has set up a task force to coordinate the implementation of agroforestry activities.
The objective of this study was to track Rwanda’s public expenditure flows towards TonF priorities; their share in the national budget and how much is spent. Being able to reconcile expenditures on specific activities such as TonF requires reliable mechanisms that can be used to monitor and track funds allocated and spent on initiatives such as the climate ambition of nations that have pledged to restore landscapes and conserve biodiversity during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Agroforestry tends to cut across the mandates of the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment and their agencies. As the two ministries have different mandates, there is not much coordination of agroforestry-related activities. This makes it difficult to track and monitor the actual expenditures.
The study estimated that over USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets between 2015 and 2019. More specifically, the national budget allocations to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) and TonF were approximately 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, over the five-year period. Yet their parent sectors – agriculture and environment (forestry) – contributed significant amounts to Rwanda’s gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. 19.3 percent for agriculture, of which only 1.6 percent was reinvested in agriculture; and 5.5 percent for environment (forestry), of which only 0.5 percent was reinvested in environmental management. An estimated USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets in this period. Frequent institutional mergers and a lack of coordinating mechanism also had a restrictive impact on funding for land restoration, the study found.
Two key recommendations were made by the study. First, budget allocations need to be made more visible in the national expenditure system by labeling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry.’ This should then enable a critical assessment of whether the allocated funds are sufficient to contribute to broader national targets, while consideration should be given to how donor budgets can be best used to supplement national activities. Second, the authors proposed the allocations for SMNR and TonF in the national budget to be increased to at least 10 percent and 5 percent, from the current levels of 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively. They also called for an improved visibility of TonF activities and funding in the budgets of relevant institutions and at district level, by clearly labelling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry’ for better monitorable allocations to TonF and their contribution to the realisation of the country pledge to climate change as part of the Bonn Challenge.
Trees on Farms (TonF) or agroforestry is central to achieving the objectives of the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. TonF are pivotal in mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change as they protect ecosystems by sequestering carbon. In 2011 the Government of Rwanda pledged to restore 2 million hectares of deforested and degraded land, as part of the Bonn Challenge. Increasing TonF is one of the strategies that can contribute to meeting this pledge. Under this framework the Government of Rwanda has recognized the importance of Trees on Farms and has set up a task force to coordinate the implementation of agroforestry activities.
The objective of this study was to track Rwanda’s public expenditure flows towards TonF priorities; their share in the national budget and how much is spent. Being able to reconcile expenditures on specific activities such as TonF requires reliable mechanisms that can be used to monitor and track funds allocated and spent on initiatives such as the climate ambition of nations that have pledged to restore landscapes and conserve biodiversity during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Agroforestry tends to cut across the mandates of the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment and their agencies. As the two ministries have different mandates, there is not much coordination of agroforestry-related activities. This makes it difficult to track and monitor the actual expenditures.
The study estimated that over USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets between 2015 and 2019. More specifically, the national budget allocations to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) and TonF were approximately 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, over the five-year period. Yet their parent sectors – agriculture and environment (forestry) – contributed significant amounts to Rwanda’s gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. 19.3 percent for agriculture, of which only 1.6 percent was reinvested in agriculture; and 5.5 percent for environment (forestry), of which only 0.5 percent was reinvested in environmental management. An estimated USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets in this period. Frequent institutional mergers and a lack of coordinating mechanism also had a restrictive impact on funding for land restoration, the study found.
Two key recommendations were made by the study. First, budget allocations need to be made more visible in the national expenditure system by labeling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry.’ This should then enable a critical assessment of whether the allocated funds are sufficient to contribute to broader national targets, while consideration should be given to how donor budgets can be best used to supplement national activities. Second, the authors proposed the allocations for SMNR and TonF in the national budget to be increased to at least 10 percent and 5 percent, from the current levels of 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively. They also called for an improved visibility of TonF activities and funding in the budgets of relevant institutions and at district level, by clearly labelling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry’ for better monitorable allocations to TonF and their contribution to the realisation of the country pledge to climate change as part of the Bonn Challenge.
Trees on Farms (TonF) or agroforestry is central to achieving the objectives of the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. TonF are pivotal in mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change as they protect ecosystems by sequestering carbon. In 2011 the Government of Rwanda pledged to restore 2 million hectares of deforested and degraded land, as part of the Bonn Challenge. Increasing TonF is one of the strategies that can contribute to meeting this pledge. Under this framework the Government of Rwanda has recognized the importance of Trees on Farms and has set up a task force to coordinate the implementation of agroforestry activities.
The objective of this study was to track Rwanda’s public expenditure flows towards TonF priorities; their share in the national budget and how much is spent. Being able to reconcile expenditures on specific activities such as TonF requires reliable mechanisms that can be used to monitor and track funds allocated and spent on initiatives such as the climate ambition of nations that have pledged to restore landscapes and conserve biodiversity during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Agroforestry tends to cut across the mandates of the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment and their agencies. As the two ministries have different mandates, there is not much coordination of agroforestry-related activities. This makes it difficult to track and monitor the actual expenditures.
The study estimated that over USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets between 2015 and 2019. More specifically, the national budget allocations to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) and TonF were approximately 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, over the five-year period. Yet their parent sectors – agriculture and environment (forestry) – contributed significant amounts to Rwanda’s gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. 19.3 percent for agriculture, of which only 1.6 percent was reinvested in agriculture; and 5.5 percent for environment (forestry), of which only 0.5 percent was reinvested in environmental management. An estimated USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets in this period. Frequent institutional mergers and a lack of coordinating mechanism also had a restrictive impact on funding for land restoration, the study found.
Two key recommendations were made by the study. First, budget allocations need to be made more visible in the national expenditure system by labeling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry.’ This should then enable a critical assessment of whether the allocated funds are sufficient to contribute to broader national targets, while consideration should be given to how donor budgets can be best used to supplement national activities. Second, the authors proposed the allocations for SMNR and TonF in the national budget to be increased to at least 10 percent and 5 percent, from the current levels of 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively. They also called for an improved visibility of TonF activities and funding in the budgets of relevant institutions and at district level, by clearly labelling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry’ for better monitorable allocations to TonF and their contribution to the realisation of the country pledge to climate change as part of the Bonn Challenge.
Trees on Farms (TonF) or agroforestry is central to achieving the objectives of the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. TonF are pivotal in mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change as they protect ecosystems by sequestering carbon. In 2011 the Government of Rwanda pledged to restore 2 million hectares of deforested and degraded land, as part of the Bonn Challenge. Increasing TonF is one of the strategies that can contribute to meeting this pledge. Under this framework the Government of Rwanda has recognized the importance of Trees on Farms and has set up a task force to coordinate the implementation of agroforestry activities.
The objective of this study was to track Rwanda’s public expenditure flows towards TonF priorities; their share in the national budget and how much is spent. Being able to reconcile expenditures on specific activities such as TonF requires reliable mechanisms that can be used to monitor and track funds allocated and spent on initiatives such as the climate ambition of nations that have pledged to restore landscapes and conserve biodiversity during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Agroforestry tends to cut across the mandates of the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment and their agencies. As the two ministries have different mandates, there is not much coordination of agroforestry-related activities. This makes it difficult to track and monitor the actual expenditures.
The study estimated that over USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets between 2015 and 2019. More specifically, the national budget allocations to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) and TonF were approximately 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, over the five-year period. Yet their parent sectors – agriculture and environment (forestry) – contributed significant amounts to Rwanda’s gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. 19.3 percent for agriculture, of which only 1.6 percent was reinvested in agriculture; and 5.5 percent for environment (forestry), of which only 0.5 percent was reinvested in environmental management. An estimated USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets in this period. Frequent institutional mergers and a lack of coordinating mechanism also had a restrictive impact on funding for land restoration, the study found.
Two key recommendations were made by the study. First, budget allocations need to be made more visible in the national expenditure system by labeling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry.’ This should then enable a critical assessment of whether the allocated funds are sufficient to contribute to broader national targets, while consideration should be given to how donor budgets can be best used to supplement national activities. Second, the authors proposed the allocations for SMNR and TonF in the national budget to be increased to at least 10 percent and 5 percent, from the current levels of 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively. They also called for an improved visibility of TonF activities and funding in the budgets of relevant institutions and at district level, by clearly labelling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry’ for better monitorable allocations to TonF and their contribution to the realisation of the country pledge to climate change as part of the Bonn Challenge.
Trees on Farms (TonF) or agroforestry is central to achieving the objectives of the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. TonF are pivotal in mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change as they protect ecosystems by sequestering carbon. In 2011 the Government of Rwanda pledged to restore 2 million hectares of deforested and degraded land, as part of the Bonn Challenge. Increasing TonF is one of the strategies that can contribute to meeting this pledge. Under this framework the Government of Rwanda has recognized the importance of Trees on Farms and has set up a task force to coordinate the implementation of agroforestry activities.
The objective of this study was to track Rwanda’s public expenditure flows towards TonF priorities; their share in the national budget and how much is spent. Being able to reconcile expenditures on specific activities such as TonF requires reliable mechanisms that can be used to monitor and track funds allocated and spent on initiatives such as the climate ambition of nations that have pledged to restore landscapes and conserve biodiversity during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Agroforestry tends to cut across the mandates of the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment and their agencies. As the two ministries have different mandates, there is not much coordination of agroforestry-related activities. This makes it difficult to track and monitor the actual expenditures.
The study estimated that over USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets between 2015 and 2019. More specifically, the national budget allocations to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) and TonF were approximately 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, over the five-year period. Yet their parent sectors – agriculture and environment (forestry) – contributed significant amounts to Rwanda’s gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. 19.3 percent for agriculture, of which only 1.6 percent was reinvested in agriculture; and 5.5 percent for environment (forestry), of which only 0.5 percent was reinvested in environmental management. An estimated USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets in this period. Frequent institutional mergers and a lack of coordinating mechanism also had a restrictive impact on funding for land restoration, the study found.
Two key recommendations were made by the study. First, budget allocations need to be made more visible in the national expenditure system by labeling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry.’ This should then enable a critical assessment of whether the allocated funds are sufficient to contribute to broader national targets, while consideration should be given to how donor budgets can be best used to supplement national activities. Second, the authors proposed the allocations for SMNR and TonF in the national budget to be increased to at least 10 percent and 5 percent, from the current levels of 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively. They also called for an improved visibility of TonF activities and funding in the budgets of relevant institutions and at district level, by clearly labelling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry’ for better monitorable allocations to TonF and their contribution to the realisation of the country pledge to climate change as part of the Bonn Challenge.
Trees on Farms (TonF) or agroforestry is central to achieving the objectives of the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. TonF are pivotal in mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change as they protect ecosystems by sequestering carbon. In 2011 the Government of Rwanda pledged to restore 2 million hectares of deforested and degraded land, as part of the Bonn Challenge. Increasing TonF is one of the strategies that can contribute to meeting this pledge. Under this framework the Government of Rwanda has recognized the importance of Trees on Farms and has set up a task force to coordinate the implementation of agroforestry activities.
The objective of this study was to track Rwanda’s public expenditure flows towards TonF priorities; their share in the national budget and how much is spent. Being able to reconcile expenditures on specific activities such as TonF requires reliable mechanisms that can be used to monitor and track funds allocated and spent on initiatives such as the climate ambition of nations that have pledged to restore landscapes and conserve biodiversity during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Agroforestry tends to cut across the mandates of the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment and their agencies. As the two ministries have different mandates, there is not much coordination of agroforestry-related activities. This makes it difficult to track and monitor the actual expenditures.
The study estimated that over USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets between 2015 and 2019. More specifically, the national budget allocations to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) and TonF were approximately 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, over the five-year period. Yet their parent sectors – agriculture and environment (forestry) – contributed significant amounts to Rwanda’s gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. 19.3 percent for agriculture, of which only 1.6 percent was reinvested in agriculture; and 5.5 percent for environment (forestry), of which only 0.5 percent was reinvested in environmental management. An estimated USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets in this period. Frequent institutional mergers and a lack of coordinating mechanism also had a restrictive impact on funding for land restoration, the study found.
Two key recommendations were made by the study. First, budget allocations need to be made more visible in the national expenditure system by labeling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry.’ This should then enable a critical assessment of whether the allocated funds are sufficient to contribute to broader national targets, while consideration should be given to how donor budgets can be best used to supplement national activities. Second, the authors proposed the allocations for SMNR and TonF in the national budget to be increased to at least 10 percent and 5 percent, from the current levels of 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively. They also called for an improved visibility of TonF activities and funding in the budgets of relevant institutions and at district level, by clearly labelling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry’ for better monitorable allocations to TonF and their contribution to the realisation of the country pledge to climate change as part of the Bonn Challenge.
Trees on Farms (TonF) or agroforestry is central to achieving the objectives of the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. TonF are pivotal in mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change as they protect ecosystems by sequestering carbon. In 2011 the Government of Rwanda pledged to restore 2 million hectares of deforested and degraded land, as part of the Bonn Challenge. Increasing TonF is one of the strategies that can contribute to meeting this pledge. Under this framework the Government of Rwanda has recognized the importance of Trees on Farms and has set up a task force to coordinate the implementation of agroforestry activities.
The objective of this study was to track Rwanda’s public expenditure flows towards TonF priorities; their share in the national budget and how much is spent. Being able to reconcile expenditures on specific activities such as TonF requires reliable mechanisms that can be used to monitor and track funds allocated and spent on initiatives such as the climate ambition of nations that have pledged to restore landscapes and conserve biodiversity during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Agroforestry tends to cut across the mandates of the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment and their agencies. As the two ministries have different mandates, there is not much coordination of agroforestry-related activities. This makes it difficult to track and monitor the actual expenditures.
The study estimated that over USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets between 2015 and 2019. More specifically, the national budget allocations to Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) and TonF were approximately 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, over the five-year period. Yet their parent sectors – agriculture and environment (forestry) – contributed significant amounts to Rwanda’s gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. 19.3 percent for agriculture, of which only 1.6 percent was reinvested in agriculture; and 5.5 percent for environment (forestry), of which only 0.5 percent was reinvested in environmental management. An estimated USD 358 million was allocated to TonF from national budgets in this period. Frequent institutional mergers and a lack of coordinating mechanism also had a restrictive impact on funding for land restoration, the study found.
Two key recommendations were made by the study. First, budget allocations need to be made more visible in the national expenditure system by labeling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry.’ This should then enable a critical assessment of whether the allocated funds are sufficient to contribute to broader national targets, while consideration should be given to how donor budgets can be best used to supplement national activities. Second, the authors proposed the allocations for SMNR and TonF in the national budget to be increased to at least 10 percent and 5 percent, from the current levels of 6.8 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively. They also called for an improved visibility of TonF activities and funding in the budgets of relevant institutions and at district level, by clearly labelling them as ‘planting trees on farm’ or ‘agroforestry’ for better monitorable allocations to TonF and their contribution to the realisation of the country pledge to climate change as part of the Bonn Challenge.