Africa hosts approximately 14 million refugees; nearly one-third of the global refugee population. Uganda alone hosts over 1.8 million refugees, with their settlement on small plots of land (~ 50 × 50 m), within host communities exerting pressure on natural resources and accelerating environmental degradation. This paper presents a study on the root causes and consequences of woodfuel sourcing and utilization and community priority interventions in Rhino and Imvepi Refugee Settlements in Uganda for informed decision making. Data was collected via a household survey through personal communication with 381 respondents (62 men, 319 women), key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs). The results showed that firewood was the dominant fuel used by 96 % of hosts and 97 % of refugees, followed by charcoal (40 % and 59 %, respectively). Fuel stacking (using more than one fuel type) was reported by 48 % of hosts and 73 % of refugee households. Our study highlights that refugees presented greater reliance on charcoal and crop residues, reflecting firewood scarcity and charcoal’s availability as a traded commodity. Women and children, particularly among refugees, faced greater hardships in accessing firewood. Environmental degradation from woodfuel sourcing and utilization is driven by socio-cultural norms, economic hardship, weak policy enforcement and inadequate skills and poor awareness of sustainable practices; leading to deforestation, air pollution, soil degradation, biodiversity loss and adverse impacts on livelihoods. The root causes and impacts from woodfuel sourcing and use are complex and deeply interconnected, highlighting the need for transdisciplinary, gender-responsive and context-specific approaches to promote sustainable and cleaner woodfuel systems in both host and refugee communities.
Tag: cooking
Prevalence of bacterial contamination on wild meat processing and cooking surfaces in rural Cameroon
The transmission of foodborne pathogens from wildlife to humans poses a serious public health concern, especially in regions where wild meat is commonly consumed. The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the urgency of understanding the role of wild animals in disease transmission. This study investigates bacterial contamination in wild meat processing across four villages in southern Cameroon, emphasizing the importance of hygienic practices in disease prevention. A total of 100 samples were collected from utensils and surfaces used in wild meat preparation, revealing 577 bacterial strains—154 of which (27%) were pathogenic. Cooking pots emerged as major reservoirs, with 75% of pathogenic bacteria found on frequently used utensils. High levels of antimicrobial resistance were detected among Enterobacterales, particularly against amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, ciprofloxacin, cotrimoxazole, and gentamicin. The findings highlight the health risks linked to wild meat handling and the economic implications of foodborne illnesses. They also stress the need for improved sanitation, safer cooking practices, and region-specific interventions. The study supports the implementation of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) recently approved by Cameroon’s Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries, offering comprehensive guidelines for the safe handling, preparation, and consumption of wild meat.
Comparative Assessment of Gasifier Cookstove Performance on Smallholder Farms in Three Regions in Kenya
A majority of households in sub-Saharan Africa use inefficient biomass stoves in poorly ventilated kitchens, leading to indoor air pollution. Biomass for cooking can be sustainably sourced from agricultural residues such as prunings from agroforestry. This study assessed biochar-producing gasifier cookstove performance among 150 households in Embu, Kwale, and Siaya Counties through household surveys and participatory cooking tests with 75 households. With the gasifier, carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations were lower in Embu (5.1 ppm), while carbon dioxide (CO2) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were lower in Kwale, at 588 ppm and 136 μg/m3, respectively. Compared to the three-stone open fire, reductions in CO and PM2.5 concentrations were highest in Embu, at 82% and 97%, respectively. The biomass-to-char conversion efficiency with the gasifier was 17–18%. If households consider the produced char as a soil amendment, they could save 24–43% of fuel compared to the three-stone open fire; if the char is seen as fuel, the potential savings are 42–65%. Significant differences between the three sites were observed with the gasifier for gross and net fuel use, and for concentrations of PM2.5 and CO2. Gasifier uptake can reduce the need for fuel collection and indoor air pollution, with a positive impact on both the environment and human wellbeing.
Gasifier as a cleaner cooking system in rural Kenya
Global demand for wood fuel energy is high and rising due to population increases, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where firewood and charcoal are the main sources of cooking energy. Inefficient cooking techniques consume large amounts of fuel and create indoor pollution, with negative health impacts particularly among women and small children. Efficient cooking stoves can potentially save fuel and reduce the health risks of smoke in the kitchen. This study compared the ease of use, energy consumption, fuel use efficiency and gas and particle emissions of a small-scale gasifier cooking stove with that of a traditional three-stone stove and an improved Hifadhi stove in a smallholder farming setting in Kenya. This was done by participatory evaluation of these cooking techniques by women on smallholder farms, assessing fuel consumption, time used in cooking and indoor air concentrations of carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter. It was found that compared with traditional and improved cooking stoves, the gasifier domestic cooking system saved 27-40% of fuel, reduced cooking time by 19-23% and reduced emissions by 40-90%. Thus the gasifier system has potential to alleviate energy and time poverty among small-scale farmers, while improving kitchen air quality. These new findings can assist in development of cleaner biomass cooking technologies in developing countries. Women who cooked using the gasifier preferred it to current cooking practices due to perceived benefits. Thus the gasifier is appropriate for rural areas; it constitutes a cleaner cooking system that saves fuel, produces charcoal for another round of cooking, cooks rapidly, and reduces indoor air pollution from cooking with biomass fuel. However, there is a need to improve the design to make it more stable and safer. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Cleaner Cooking with Charcoal in Kibera Informal Settlement in Nairobi, Kenya, and Its Implications for Livelihoods and the Environment
Woodfuel that is unsustainably sourced and inefficiently used results in negative environmental and health impacts. This study assessed charcoal use and resultant concentrations of indoor air pollutants (IAP) in an urban informal settlement while cooking with a Jikokoa stove (an improved branded charcoal stove) and medium and small-sized artisanal Kenya Ceramic Jikos (KCJs). Fuel stacking was prevalent with charcoal and kerosene being used by 25% of the studied households. Cooking with a Jikokoa stove reduced charcoal consumption by 6.4% and 26% compared to small and medium-sized KCJs, respectively. The small-sized KCJ reduced charcoal consumption by 21% compared to the medium-sized KCJ. The Jikokoa stove reduced concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) by 10% and 50% and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) by 6% and 77% compared to small-sized and medium-sized KCJs, respectively. The Jikokoa stove reduced carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations by 15.6% compared to the medium-sized KCJ. The small-sized KCJ reduced CO and PM2.5 concentrations by 45% and 75%, respectively, compared to the medium-sized KCJ. In summary, small-sized KCJs are more effective than medium-sized ones, and Jikokoa stoves more effective than small-sized KCJs, making it the stove of choice. The more efficient charcoal stoves are, the more charcoal consumption and IAP can be reduced, mitigating environmental degradation, climate change and health problems associated with smoke in the kitchen. There is need for participatory research to scale improved stoves and upgrade local practices as they are cheaper and already embedded in the cooking culture.
Emission of volatile organic compounds during open fire cooking with wood biomass: Traditional three-stone open fire vs. gasifier cooking stove in rural Kenya
Cooking with wood biomass fuels releases hazardous air pollutants, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), that often disproportionally affect women and children. This study, conducted in Kwale and Siaya counties in Kenya, employed thermal desorption gas chromatography – mass spectrometry to analyse VOC emissions from cooking with a wood biomass three-stone open fire vs. top-lit updraft gasifier stove. In kitchens with adequate ventilation, total VOC levels increased from 35–252 μg∙m−3 before cooking to 2235–5371 μg∙m−3 during open fire cooking, whereas use of a gasifier stove resulted in reduced emissions from cooking by 48–77 % (506–2778 μg∙m−3). However, in kitchens with poor ventilation, there was only a moderate difference in total VOC levels between the two methods of cooking (9034–9378 μg∙m−3 vs. 6727–8201 μg∙m−3 for the three-stone open fire vs. gasifier stove, respectively). Using a non-target screening approach revealed significantly increased levels of VOCs, particularly benzenoids, oxygenated and heterocyclic compounds, when cooking with the traditional open fire, especially in closed kitchens, highlighting the effects of poor ventilation. Key hazardous VOCs included benzene, naphthalene, phenols and furans, suggesting potential health risks from cooking. In kitchens with good ventilation, use of the gasifier stove markedly reduced emissions of these priority toxic VOCs compared to cooking with an open fire. Thus, substituting open fires with gasifier stoves could help to improve household air quality and alleviate health risks. The study revealed that VOCs were present prior to cooking, possibly originating from previously cooked food (buildup) or the outside environment. VOC emissions were also exacerbated by reduced air flow in high humidity during rainfall, suggesting an area for further research. The findings underscore the importance of adopting cleaner cooking technologies and enhancing kitchen ventilation to mitigate the impacts of VOCs in developing countries.