Charcoal is the primary energy used for cooking and heating in millions of homes and restaurants in the Global South. In Africa alone, which produces 65% of global production, an estimated 195million people are engaged in the production of firewood and charcoal. Despite decades of efforts to transition away from charcoal, consumption is growing and expected to increase in the foreseeable future as it continues to be the most affordable, accessible and preferred cooking fuel. Where wood supplies are diminishing, growing demand for charcoal threatens forests and forest-dependent livelihoods; it also frustrates efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and curb biodiversity loss. Securing biomass that is renewable, reliable, economically viable and culturally acceptable is urgently needed in the Global South to develop sustainable charcoal sectors. In this policy brief, we present three tested approaches for producing feedstock for charcoal that can be applied to diverse contexts.
Tag: charcoal
The Potentials and Challenges of Achieving Sustainability through Charcoal Producer Associations in Kenya: A Missed Opportunity?
The charcoal industry, specifically charcoal production, is tremendously valuable to Kenya for its contribution to economic, social and environmental nexus. Considering the degradation of ecosystems and charcoal production’s critical role, the government established the Forest (charcoal) rules of 2009, assigning commercial charcoal production under Charcoal Producer Associations (CPAs). Identifying numerous bans in the recent past, this paper sets out to understand CPAs’ potentials and challenges in attaining sustainability within the sector. Using focus group discussions with CPA members from Tana River and Kitui counties, the paper outlines analysed data within the functionality, governance and policy implications parameters of operation. The findings show high economic value for the members and an in-depth environmental significance to the communities within which these CPAs exist. Thus, we propose a schematic to enhance charcoal production processes to achieve sustainable ecosystems and livelihoods. There is high potential within the CPAs for the sector’s sustainability through monitoring platforms, restoration plans, adopting sustainable practices, knowledge dissemination and societal advancement. To advance this untapped potential of these associations, we recommend building their technical, business and governance skills, exploring various restoration schemes, financial and regulatory support in implementation, and policy support.
Linking restoration and sustainable wood fuel initiatives in Sahelian Cameroon
Cameroon’s commitment to the AFR100 initiative to restore 12 million hectares of degraded land puts emphasis on the country’s three dry northern regions. One quarter of this commitment is supposed to take place in the Far North Region. The highest degradation of this region has clear impacts on livelihoods; in addition, the dependence of local communities, internally displaced people and refugees on unsustainable wood fuel collection contributes to further degradation.
Raising the profile of woodfuels in the forest landscape restoration agenda
Forest landscape restoration (FLR) is being promoted as a means of tackling global challenges including land degradation, climate change, biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. However, as the FLR agenda gains momentum, it is critical that FLR initiatives pay sufficient attention in promoting the sustainable management of woodfuels, so far overlooked. In many regions, woodfuels (firewood and charcoal) are the main energy source for households and play a pivotal role in local economies; yet they are also associated with environmental degradation and adverse health outcomes. Here we examine the reasons why it is important to raise the profile of woodfuels within the FLR agenda and highlight the enabling conditions needed to promote sustainable management of woodfuels. In landscapes where woodfuel use is prevalent, FLR initiatives should consider enhancing wood fuel supply by growing trees, promoting fuel‐efficient cookstoves and kilns, and shifting pressure from natural forests and woodlands to planted trees. We argue that if wood fuel issues are considered in the design, implementation and monitoring of FLR initiatives and are supported by appropriate policies, resources and technical capacity, this will greatly enhance the sustainability and success of FLR initiatives.
Efficiency of Three-Stone Fire and Improved Cooking Stoves using on-farm and off-farm fuels in semi-arid Tanzania
In Tanzania, fuelwood availability for cooking is an increasing challenge for rural households struggling to meet this need. Here, a possible pathway for smallholder farmers to reduce their dependency on off-farm fuelwood is evaluated. We compare the cooking performance of on-farm produced fuels, like wood from Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. and Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (pigeon pea stalks) with the off-farm fuelwood species Mimusops obtusifolia (Lam. Sapotaceae). Fuel performance was tested using Three-Stone Fire stoves and artisan-made Improved Cooking Stoves. We conducted 75 cooking tasks, cooking a standardized pre-defined meal with two pots in five villages in Chamwino and Kongwa districts, Dodoma region. The Controlled Cooking Test design assessed four key performance indicators: (1) time until water is boiling in pot A, (2) time until food item in pot A is ready to be consumed, (3) total cooking time per meal, including food items in pots A and B, (4) total fuel consumption per meal, including food items in pots A and B. Compared to the off-farm fuel, on-farm fuels perform better across the four key performance indicators. The results show that with regard to total cooking time per meal, including food items in pots A and B and total fuel consumption per meal, including food items in pots A and B, Improved Cooking Stoves used less time and fuel than Three-Stone Fire stoves. Regarding the key performance indicators time until water is boiling in pot A and time until food item in pot A is ready to be consumed, Three-Stone Fire stoves are faster than Improved Cooking Stoves, thus suggesting that Three-Stone Fire stoves are beneficial when cooking with only one pot. In order to reduce fuel and time consumption during cooking, the results suggest switching from off-farm to on-farm fuels; however, the choice of stove will depend on the cooking task performed.
Utilizing Mathenge (Prosopis Juliflora) for Charcoal: The Other Side of an Invasive Species
The study used Focused Group Discussions (FGD), seasonal and livelihood calendars, participatory visioning and mapping and training of trainers delivered in partnership with KEFRI. Analysis from the project has showed that the species has potential to provide communities with 14 different products and services with charcoal ranking highest and food for humans the lowest. In terms of contribution to livelihoods, both men and women rank charcoal among the top three livelihood sources after farming and livestock keeping. Pods, another product from Prosopis can be sold as feed for livestock at KES 100 (USD1) per 50kg bag. Management by utilization of the almost 19,000 hectares of Prosopis juliflora in Baringo for sustainable charcoal production presents potential for improving livelihoods and the environment. It presents an opportunity for supplying the growing urban centers with affordable cooking fuel, a strategy that can be scaled out to the other affected counties. Also, there is need for complete removal of mathenge in some pockets to create room for enrichment with native high value multipurpose tree species to enhance biodiversity.
Biochar producing gasifier cooking system for enhanced fuelwood efficiency, women’s wellbeing and sustainable agroecosystems in Kenya
Gasifier cookstoves produce heat for cooking through gasification of dry biomass at high temperature and produce charcoal as a by-product, which is used for further cooking or as biochar for soil amendment. Compared to conventional cooking practices, the gasifier is a cleaner cooking option that improves efficiency, and reduces exposure to smoke and need for firewood collection, a tiring and time-consuming exercise. The cookstove is suitable for fuelling with small pieces of wood, such as prunings from agroforestry trees reducing need for collection of forest residues allowing their accumulation into soil organic matter consequently enhancing biodiversity. When applied to soil, biochar helps to improve the crop yields and when used as fuel, households save money on the purchase of alternative fuels. Users, however, have faced challenges with fuel preparation, lighting and reloading fuel, especially when the fuel chars before the food is ready.
Prosopis juliflora – a potential game changer in the charcoal sector in Kenya
Prosopis juliflora, locally known as ‘mathenge’, is a shrub or small tree that is native to Mexico, South America and the Caribbean, and is an invasive species in Kenya. In Kenya, Prosopis juliflora was introduced from 1973 through to the 1980s to arid and semi-arid areas to mitigate desertification and fuel wood shortages (Pimentel et al., 2000; Masakha & Wagulo, 2015). The species was preferred because of its resilience, drought tolerance and fast growth (Meyerhoff, 1991). However, it is aggressively invading about 500-1300 ha per year, causing land use and land cover change, and losses of grasslands, woodlands, croplands, grazing lands and settlements, especially in Turkana, Baringo, Garissa, Tana River and Taita Taveta Counties (Mbaabu et al., 2019; Eckert et al., 2020). By 2016, Prosopis juliflora had invaded 2 percent of Kenyan drylands, covering 18 792 hectares in Baringo County alone. In this County, Prosopis juliflora coverage is estimated to have increased by almost 4 percent or 640 ha per year since 2002 (Mbaabu et al., 2019). In Marigat Sub-County, Ng’ambo is the most highly invaded, whilst Ilchamus and Loboi are relatively less affected. Thus, management and utilization of the current 18 792 ha of Prosopis juliflora in Baringo County for charcoal production using improved kilns and effective transportation and marketing presents potential for improving livelihoods and the environment (Mbaabu et al., 2019). Various technologies with high charcoal conversion efficiencies of about 30 percent have been adapted and/or developed by Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI) and other institutions.
Forest use strategies and their determinants among rural households in the Miombo woodlands of the Copperbelt Province, Zambia
Forest landscapes in tropical and subtropical areas support the livelihoods of their inhabitants through subsistence use of products, and cash income obtained from the sale of products. Despite its contribution to livelihoods, it remains unclear how forest products play a role in forest use strategies and what affects different forest use strategies, particularly in rural tropical Africa. A better understanding of forest-based livelihood strategies could be an important basis for the design of sustainable development policies. In this study, we use cluster analysis to identify forest use strategies and apply multinomial logistic regression to determine the factors affecting forest use strategy choices using data from 412 households in four sites in the rural Copperbelt province.
Results reveal three strategic forest use choices undertaken by households: specialised charcoal sellers (32.3%), forest food and charcoal sellers (18.2%) and pure subsistence-orientated forest users (49.5%). Forest income varied strongly among forest use strategies; specialised charcoal sellers and forest food and charcoal sellers were the most remunerative strategies. We observed higher per capita extraction of firewood and charcoal produced in restricted landscapes compared to non-restricted landscapes. Distances to exclusively owned forestlands, access to permanent roads, restrictions on public forestlands and off-farm incomes were found to determine access to more lucrative forest use strategies. Alternatively, households with relatively older heads and larger sizes are associated with lower income (subsistence) strategies.
The results suggest the need for the efficient enforcement of restriction regimes, but also the benefit of understanding forest resource governance. Charcoal production is a more remunerative forest use strategy for rural households and a relatively resource-intensive yet important component of the rural economy. In order to ensure sustainable production, the demand for charcoal should be compatible with Miombo’s production capacity. Sustainable production can be achieved by introducing reforestation or coppicing systems that are consistent with the growing demands of Miombo.
“The Problem is a Lack of Firewood”: Charcoal briquettes for cooking energy in refugee and host communities
In Africa the population of refugees is increasing, resulting in ‘accidental urban centres’ often in remote arid landscapes. Firewood and charcoal, the main sources of cooking energy on the continent, are in short supply in refugee settings. This research is based on a series of interrelated studies conducted among Kalobeyei refugee and host communities in Northwestern Kenya using mixed methods from social and natural sciences. Firewood is inadequate, and 95% of households exchanged or sold food to buy cooking fuel. Energy poverty leaves women feeling disempowered and frustrated and causes conflicts between the refugee and host communities. Charcoal briquettes produced and used by the women emerged as a viable cooking fuel. Women stated that marketing challenges and difficulties in sourcing the raw materials may hinder growth of briquettes as a business. Possible solutions include using biomass from the invasive Prosopis juliflora (currently used for charcoal), establishing “briquette kiosks”, and integrating briquettes into development plans. In refugee contexts, approaches to food insecurity should integrate cooking energy and give women an opportunity to voice their needs and aspirations.