Jatropha curcas (Jatropha), a shrubby tree native to Central America, thrives in many parts of the tropics and sub-tropics in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Asia. Though an essentially undomesticated shrub, Jatropha suddenly emerged as a promising biodiesel feedstock during the period 2003-2009, when rising petrol prices fuelled global interests in bioenergy crops. Jatropha was claimed to produce high-quality oil, and had a wide adaptability to diverse climatic zones and soil types, minimum input requirements, short gestation period, easy multiplication, drought tolerance, pest and disease resistance and an ability to grow under marginal conditions without competition for resources for food production. It was considered a ‘silver bullet’ to solve energy insecurity in low-income countries and to support economic development. Similarly, investors from developed nations were eager to grow it in large commercial plantations in SSA and elsewhere for export. However, many claims made regarding Jatropha have proven highly exaggerated (GTZ, 2009). After some years of plantation, the Jatropha boom halted. By 2009, many media reports revealed disillusioning episodes across the developing world. Academics also began to question its commercial viability as a bioenergy feedstock, with low yields (if no inputs) being a significant concern (GTZ, 2009; Ariza-Montobbio and Lele, 2010; Iiyama et al., 2013; NL Agency, 2013). In SSA, the Jatropha hype left many affected smallholder farmers confused and disillusioned. Yet few assessments (NL Agency, 2013) have critically examined the crop’s rather disorganised promotion and analysed failures on the ground from the value chain (VC) perspective. Considering a Kenyan case, we examine the following hypothesis: the recent Jatropha boom failed to deliver the claimed benefits for energy security and economic development, because (i) the bioenergy VC remained under-developed in SSA, and/or (ii) lacked the enabling environment present in other bioenergy VCs, e.g. India.
Tag: biodiesel
Life cycle assessment of Jatropha biodiesel as transportation fuel in rural India
Since 2003 India has been actively promoting the cultivation of Jatropha on unproductive and degraded lands (wastelands) for the production of biodiesel suitable as transportation fuel. In this paper the life cycle energy balance, global warming potential, acidification potential, eutrophication potential and land use impact on ecosystem quality is evaluated for a small scale, low-input Jatropha biodiesel system established on wasteland in rural India. In addition to the life cycle assessment of the case at hand, the environmental performance of the same system expanded with a biogas installation digesting seed cake was quantified. The environmental impacts were compared to the life cycle impacts of a fossil fuel reference system delivering the same amount of products and functions as the Jatropha biodiesel system under research. The results show that the production and use of Jatropha biodiesel triggers an 82% decrease in non-renewable energy requirement (Net Energy Ratio, NER = 1.85) and a 55% reduction in global warming potential (GWP) compared to the reference fossil-fuel based system. However, there is an increase in acidification (49%) and eutrophication (430%) from the Jatropha system relative to the reference case. Although adding biogas production to the system boosts the energy efficiency of the system (NER = 3.40), the GWP reduction would not increase (51%) due to additional CH4 emissions. For the land use impact, Jatropha improved the structural ecosystem quality when planted on wasteland, but reduced the functional ecosystem quality. Fertilizer application (mainly N) is an important contributor to most negative impact categories. Optimizing fertilization, agronomic practices and genetics are the major system improvement options.
Towards domestication of Jatropha curcas
Jatropha curcas L. attracts a lot of interest as a biofuel crop, triggering large investments and rapid expansion of cultivation areas, and yet, it should still be considered as a (semi-)wild, undomesticated plant. To use the full potential of Jatropha and to support further expansion and systematic selection, breeding and domestication are a prerequisite. This review reveals and identifies gaps in knowledge that still impede domestication of Jatropha. Prebreeding knowledge is limited. In particular, the regeneration ecology and the degree of genetic diversity among and within natural populations in and outside the center of origin are poorly studied. There is only a limited understanding of the Jatropha breeding system and the effect of inbreeding and outbreeding. This review presents all currently available and relevant information on the species distribution, site requirements, regeneration ecology, genetic diversity, advances in selection, development of varieties and hybridization. It also describes possible routes to a better Jatropha germplasm, gives recommendations for tackling current problems and provides guidance for future research. We also discuss the participatory domestication strategy of Jatropha integration in agroforestry.
Jatropha bio-diesel production and use
The interest in using Jatropha curcas L. (JCL) as a feedstock for the production of bio-diesel is rapidly growing. The properties of the crop and its oil have persuaded investors, policy makers and clean development mechanism (CDM) project developers to consider JCL as a substitute for fossil fuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, JCL is still a wild plant of which basic agronomic properties are not thoroughly understood and the environmental effects have not been investigated yet. Gray literature reports are very optimistic on simultaneous wasteland reclamation capability and oil yields, further fueling the Jatropha bio-diesel hype. In this paper, we give an overview of the currently available information on the different process steps of the production process of bio-diesel from JCL, being cultivation and production of seeds, extraction of the oil, conversion to and the use of the bio-diesel and the by-products. Based on this collection of data and information the best available practice, the shortcomings and the potential environmental risks and benefits are discussed for each production step. The review concludes with a call for general precaution and for science to be applied.
Potential energy yields of bioenergy crops in the tropics
Bioenergy can produce at least 25% of the global energy demand to combat climate change through reducing emissions in the energy sector. However, information on the bioenergy production potential of woody species and their suitability for silviculture on various soils in the humid tropics is limited. This slightly revised version of a short note published by Borchard et al. (2018) aims to identify tree species suitable for bioenergy production under these conditions. Data were compiled from 241 publications and nine freely available databases to assess environmental and silvicultural information on tropical tree species. Energy yield was derived from the estimated productivity of the reviewed species equivalent to an energy yield ranging between 2 and 444 GJ ha¯¹ yr¯¹. As such, these bioenergy yields are within the range reported for the lignocellulosic biomass of energy crops cultivated in Europe, the USA and Brazil. Our review identified some highyielding species (e.g., Dyera polyphylla (Miq.) Steenis, Metroxylon sagu (Rottb.), Pongamia pinnata (L.)) and leguminous species that could be beneficial in mixed stands (e.g., Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) and Pongamia pinnata) or are suitable species to grow on wet or re-wetted peatland (Dyera polyphylla). However, there are limitations to cultivating woody bioenergy species on wet peatland. Sustainable methods for managing and harvesting forests on wet or re-wetted peatland need to be developed.
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Prolific Pongamia: Potential to restore equilibrium between people and planet
Indonesia’s Ministry of Forests and Environment through its Nationally Determined Contributions under UNFCC has set an ambitious target to restore 14 million ha of degraded land by 2030 with 90% survival rate. This requires choice of right tree species in right landscape for the right purpose. The leguminous tree pongamia (Pongamia pinnata syn. Milettia pinnata) could be utilized to restore the degraded land while providing multiple benefits. Pongamia naturally grows across Indonesia, in Sumatra, Java, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. It grows to a height of 15–20 m and can grow in a range of environmental conditions including marginal lands. Its seeds can generate up to 40% crude oil by weight. Pongamia also provides, food, wood, fodder, medicine, fertilizer and biofuels. Therefore, as a multipurpose species, pongamia holds great potential to combat Indonesia’s energy crisis and to restore much of the degraded land.
Bioenergy Policy: The Biodiesel Sustainability Dilemma in Indonesia
Palm oil-based biodiesel in Indonesia is facing critical issue with regard to its sustainability status in both upstream and downstream sides. International market of palm oil keeps questioning this sustainability standard of Indonesia oil palm. Three interrelated dimensions of sustainability should be fulfilled only if a product to gain growing market acceptance internationally, i.e. economically profitable, ecologically sound and socially acceptable. To determine the sustainability of Indonesia’s palm oil-based biodiesel, this paper pays attention in particular to measuring sustainability status of biodiesel in the upstream to downstream side along its supply chain. The analysis of the sustainability of palm oil-based biodiesel in Indonesia is done thoroughly all related activities on the upstream (agricultural-cultivation activities) up to the downstream (manufacturing activities) side. A rap-bioenergy approach, which included the use of MDS (multidimensional scaling) analyses is applied in the analysis. The results of these analyses show that palm oil-based biodiesel in Indonesia is facing serious sustainability status. Among other three parameters, ecological aspect/parameter is a very serious one. This is especially the case for cultivation activities. This paper concludes that if Indonesia desires international markets to accept the existence of palm oil-based biodiesel, then improvements in ecological aspect should be priority.
Economic impacts of biodiesel policy in Indonesia: a computable general equilibrium approach
The Government of Indonesia has been promoting the advancement of the biodiesel sector to fulfill its commitment to support clean energy, energy security, and rural development. This paper examines the economic impact of the biodiesel sector using a computable general equilibrium model. Besides analyzing the impacts on the national macroeconomic conditions, other sectors, and household incomes, our model has also included a regional block to capture the impact of the biodiesel mandate on regional growth. Two simulations were performed: (1) fulfillment of the 30% biodiesel blending target (B30 mandate), and (2) Simulation 1 combined with the European Union’s biodiesel trade ban resulting in an export reduction of 5.18%. The results show that the two simulations provide positive impacts on macroeconomic variables, including real gross domestic product and real wages. However, the B30 mandate and the combined effect of the EU trade ban still yield an inflationary effect in the short term. They also potentially reduce the production of several agricultural products—such as sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, and soybeans—leading to an increase in food prices. The policy implications highlight that the current B30 mandate and EU ban cannot automatically improve the fuel trade balance.
Mapping degraded lands in Indonesia for bioenergy production potential
This study conducted a spatial analysis in Indonesia to estimate degraded lands potentially suitable for growing biodiesel species (Calophyllum inophyllum, Pongamia pinnata and Reutealis trisperma) and biomass species (Calliandra calothyrsus and Gliricidia sepium). Degraded lands have limited functions for food production, carbon storage, and conservation of biodiversity and native vegetation. Thus, identifying their potential to produce bioenergy can contribute to sustainable development by helping society to meet increasing energy demands and secure a new renewable energy source. The identified potential degraded lands were further examined with two scenarios: 1) an all-five-species scenario, examining the growth of all five species, and 2) a biodiesel-species-only scenario, analysing the growth of only biodiesel species. Study results illustrated approximately 3.5 million ha of degraded lands potentially suitable for these species in Indonesia. The all-five-species scenario indicated that these lands had the potential to produce 1,105 PJ yr¯¹ of biomass and 3 PJ yr¯¹ of biodiesel. The biodiesel-species-only scenario illustrated that these lands had the potential to produce 10 PJ yr¯¹ of biodiesel. In addition, many of these degraded lands were limited to support economies of scale for biofuel production due to their small land sizes. The study findings contribute to identifying lands with limited functions, modelling the growth of biofuel species on regional lands, and estimating carbon stocks of restored degraded lands in Indonesia.
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Reconciling oil palm economic development and environmental conservation in Indonesia: A value chain dynamic approach
Palm oil makes a significant contribution to the economies of Indonesia and Malaysia through private corporations, state-owned companies and smallholders, with the two countries supplying 85% of the global palm oil. Indonesia has 14 million hectares (ha) of oil palm; its palm oil exports were valued at USD 23 billion in 2017 and USD 21 billion in 2018. Both domestic and international communities, particularly the European Union (EU), have raised concerns about its sustainability and impact on forest conservation. For example, the European Parliament in 2017 issued a resolution to restrict the ability of EU countries to count palm oil-based biodiesel imports toward their renewable 2030 energy targets. This paper describes palm oil value chains in Indonesia at the national level, using value chain analysis and system dynamics modeling. The model is used to understand how the moratorium, peatland conservation, agrarian reform, and the EU biodiesel ban affect plantation expansion and production, employment, CO2 emissions, smallholder incomes, the private sector, and government. The model provides scenarios to make Indonesian palm oil more sustainable through intensification, no-deforestation, and no-peat strategies, as well as through land swapping. There are trade-offs between economic development and environmental conservation, but win-win solutions are available. Scenarios that build synergies between Indonesian palm oil development and forest conservation can help guide the new frontiers of oil palm development in Asia, South America, and Africa.