Forest encroachment for coffee farming practices in Sumberjaya, Lampung province, Sumatra, Indonesia, has created serious problems in controlling state forestland in the province. Conflict of interest regarding land status and land uses has created multi-dimensional problems in controlling the utilization of state forestland. Efforts to rehabilitate state forestland that have been used for agriculture purposes (coffee) and settlements, not only hard to meet its objectives, but also create another problem. Conflicts between government apparatus (forestry officer) and the dwellers living within state forestlands in Sumberjaya area are among the problems. Yet, the existence of administratively recognized villages within protection forest, have brought the problems beyond the domain of Forest and Estate Ministry. There are also other ecological issues such as biodiversity losses, soil erosion etc., which are filling list of debatable environmental issues. The increasing rate of forest conversion for coffee farming in Sumberjaya area since early 1980’s, however, indicates that coffee farming in this area is attractive for farmers to cultivate. Profitability assessment of coffee farming systems as a mean to understand the attractiveness of such system practiced by farmers in Sumberjaya gives a hint that coffee systems under study provide high return to land and higher return to labor than the average agricultural wage rate in Sumatra. The return of coffee system enjoyed by coffee growers in Sumberjaya constitutes pull factor to other farmers and transmigrants living in the neighboring area, particularly within peneplain zone in North Lampung and other similar area that relies on dry-land food crop farming. Without any consistent policy implementation to protect state forestland, especially the intact primary forest, forest encroachment for coffee cultivation could not be restrained.
Tag: profitability
Adoption, Profitability, Impacts, and Scaling up of Agroforestry Technologies in Southern African Countries
Because of a mix of agroecological factors (incessant drought, low soil fertility, environmental degradation) and other man-made problems (illiteracy, unfavorable development policies), the southern African region faces several challenges including worsening poverty, food insecurity, low income base, and more recently HIV=AIDS pandemic. Low soil fertility is identified as one of the greatest biophysical constraints to increasing agricultural productivity (Bekunda et al., 1997; Sanchez, 1999). The degradation of soils is caused by a breakdown of the traditional production systems resulting from shortening of fallow periods due to population pressure (Kwesiga et al., 1999). With the collapse of the erstwhile government support for the use of mineral fertilizer (e.g., through subsidies and distribution channels), in the 1990s, the ability of most smallholder farmers to purchase the same level of mineral fertilizers was reduced because the input became unaffordable to them. In addition, many countries in southern Africa are landlocked, thus increasing the cost of transporting fertilizer from the ports. Howard and Mungoma (1996) estimated that the use of mineral fertilizer fell by 70% following an increase in the cost of the inputs. The subregion also faces a rapid degradation of the miombo woodland, shortage of fodder, and decreasing access to fuelwood supplies (Kwesiga and Beniest, 1998). For example, Chidumayo (1987) estimated that Zambia alone loses ~200,000 ha of forests per year. Some of the key avenues for overcoming food insecurity and rural poverty in southern Africa include reversing soil fertility depletion, intensifying and diversifying land use with introduction of high-value products, and facilitating an appropriate policy environment for the smallholder farming sector. Although mineral fertilizer is still one of the best options for overcoming land depletion and increasing food production, the majority of the smallholder farmers are unable to afford and apply the fertilizers at the recommended rates and at the appropriate time because of high cost and delivery delays (Kwesiga et al., 2003; Akinnifesi et al., 2006). Low-cost technologies are needed on a scale wide enough to improve the livelihood of these farmers. This will require the adoption of new approaches to agriculture and rural development. Agroforestry has proven to be one of such approaches. For the past 15 years, farmers and researchers from different national and international institutions led by the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), otherwise known as the World Agroforestry Centre, have been combining their expertise and resources to develop agroforestry technologies and options to address some of these challenges facing smallholder agricultural production and the environment in the subregion. The different types of agroforestry technologies address specific human and environmental needs in southern Africa. These include fertilizer tree systems for replenishing soil fertility, rotational woodlots for solving fuelwood problems, fodder banks to supplement feed for livestock, and indigenous fruit trees for improving nutrition during the seasonal hunger periods and enhancing the preservation of indigenous plant genetic materials.
Adoption, profitability, impacts and scaling-up of agroforestry technologies in southern African countries
Due to a mix of agro-ecological factors (incessant drought, low soil fertility, environmental degradation) and other man-made problems (illiteracy, unfavorable development policies), southern Africa region faces several challenges including worsening poverty, food insecurity, low income base and more recently HIV/AIDS pandemic. Low soil fertility is identified as one of the greatest biophysical constraints to increasing agricultural productivity (Bekunda et al., 1997, Sanchez, 1999). The degradation of soils is caused by a breakdown of the traditional production systems resulting from shortening of fallow periods due to population pressure (Kwesiga et al., 1999). With the collapse of the erstwhile government support for the use of mineral fertilizer (e.g. through subsidies and distribution channels), in the 1990s, the ability of most smallholder farmers to purchase the same level of mineral fertilizers was reduced because the input became unaffordable to them. In addition, many countries in southern Africa are landlocked thus increasing the cost of transporting fertilizer from the ports. Howard and Mungoma (1996) estimated that the use of mineral fertilizer fell by 70% following an increase in the cost of the inputs. The sub-region also faces a rapid degradation of the miombo woodland, shortage of fodder and decreasing access to fuelwood supplies (Kwesiga and Beniest, 1998). For example, Chidumayo (1997) estimated that Zambia alone loses about 200 000 ha of forests per year. Some of the key avenues for overcoming food insecurity and rural poverty in southern Africa include reversing soil fertility depletion, intensifying and diversifying land use with introduction of high value products, and facilitating an appropriate policy environment for the smallholder farming sector. While mineral fertilizer is still one of the best options for overcoming land depletion and increasing food production, the majority of the smallholder farmers are unable to afford and apply the fertilizers at the recommended rates and at the appropriate time because of high cost and delivery delays (Kwesiga et al, 2003; Akinnifesi et al, 2006). Low-cost technologies are needed on a scale wide enough to improve the livelihood of these farmers. This will require the adoption of new approaches to agriculture and rural development (Pretty, 1995). Agroforestry has proven to be one of such approaches. For the past fifteen years, farmers and researchers from different national and international institutions led by the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), otherwise known as the World Agroforestry Centre have been combining their expertise and resources to develop agroforestry technologies and options to address some of these challenges facing smallholder agricultural production and the environment in the sub-region. The different types of agroforestry technologies address specific human and environmental needs in southern Africa. These include fertilizer tree systems for replenishing soil fertility, rotational woodlots for solving fuel wood problems, fodder banks to supplement feed for livestock and indigenous fruit trees for improving nutrition during the seasonal hunger periods and enhance the preservation of indigenous plant genetic materials.
The effects of agroecological farming systems on smallholder livelihoods: a case study on push–pull system from Western Kenya
There is a need for scaling-up agroecology to promote sustainable agriculture at global level. Although, recent studies show that agroecological approaches can achieve both high yields and profits compared with conventional systems, the performance of other socioeconomic indicators remains unknown. This study has two objectives (i) identify the main characteristics of small-scale producers who represent the target-groups of the SDG 2; (ii) provide a comparison between push–pull and conventional farming systems of maize production to explore and possibly implement sustainable systems. In collaboration with Biovision Africa Trust, a participatory assessment framework was implemented in Western Kenya. Twenty-three farmers were selected and data were analysed showing that the push–pull contributes to social/cultural and natural/ecological capitals. In particular, push–pull farmers are more focused on socially oriented groups (75%); moreover, they cultivate smaller plots (1.9 ha) compared to conventional farmers (3.1 ha) without showing a reduction in profitability. The benefits of adopting push–pull system indicated by farmers (e.g. diminished Striga weed) are consistent with the advantages reported in relevant scientific literature. Considering the explorative nature of this study, the article makes a key contribution by pointing towards important questions for future research on agroecology in Sub-Saharan African countries.
No-till and mulching enhance energy use efficiency and reduce carbon footprint of a direct-seeded upland rice production system
Sustainability of conventional agricultural production systems is threatened by triple challenges of energy and environmental crises, deteriorating natural resources bases, and declining farm profitability. Current agricultural management practices (energy-intensive, inefficient external and natural input use, and crop biomass burning) are negatively impacting the ecosystem services which are the principal drivers for food security and human survival. Hence, there is a need to shift from unsustainable production practices to cleaner production systems. Energy use, carbon footprint (CF), and economic sustainability are important indicators of any clean production systems. Thus, a hypothesis was formulated that no-till (NT) cultivation along with mulching can provide an environmentally clean crop production practice that can enhance energy use efficiency, economic profitability, and reduce the CF. Therefore, the present experiment was conducted for four consecutive years (2012–15) to evaluate the energy budget, CF, and economics of NT along with bio-mulching for a cleaner upland rice production system. The experiment comprised of two tillage practices i.e., conventional tillage (CT) and NT in main plots and four bio- mulches in subplots i.e., rice straw mulch (RSM), Gliricidia sepium mulch (GLM), brown manuring mulch (BMM) of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), and no mulch (NM) as a control. Results revealed that the adoption of NT curtailed energy use by 48.50%, specific energy by 49.63%, CF by 16.48%, and cost of cultivation by 35% in addition to enhancing energy use efficiency and benefit to cost ratio in comparison to CT. It was also observed that mulching, particularly the BMM, boosted the energy use efficiency, economic productivity, net returns, and benefit to cost ratio over NM. The results suggested that NT with BMM is an environmentally clean production technology to enhance the energy use efficiency, besides reducing the CF of direct-seeded upland rice production system in the Eastern Himalayas and similar eco-regions of the world.
The role of trees and livestock in ecosystem service provision and farm priorities on smallholder farms in the Rift Valley, Kenya
Human beings are dependent on ecosystems and the services they provide. Some services are currently being overexploited, resulting in degradation and further pressure on already vulnerable people in e.g., sub-Saharan Africa. Long-term and stable delivery of ecosystem services (ES) is suggested to be enhanced by more diversified farming systems that e.g., mix crops with trees and livestock. Despite the amount of research on ES, few previous studies have identified and compared the roles of trees and livestock for ES considering farm priorities within smallholder systems. We studied the role of trees and livestock for ES provision as well as farm priorities for smallholders in Kenya. Twenty smallholder farms (0.2–0.8 ha) were studied for 1 year in a fully factorial design of high or low tree and livestock density systems. Data were collected on indicators for provisioning (crop, tree and livestock production), supporting/regulating (water infiltration, soil organic carbon and nutrients) and cultural (recreation and aesthetics) ESs. In addition, farm priorities were studied, considering nutrient management, on- and off-farm resources, food and consumption, and crop, tree and livestock species diversity. A mix of qualitative (e.g., semi-structured interviews, seasonal calendar) and quantitative (e.g., soil analyses, infiltration tests) methods were used to collect data. This study confirmed roles of trees and livestock for ES and farm priorities, although they in some cases appeared less important than family labour and farm size. Results showed that high tree density was related to higher workload, lower proportions of off-farm revenue as well as higher crop, fruit and tree diversity for the household. Tree or livestock density showed no clear relation to provisioning, supporting or regulating ES. However, cultural services were on average provided more by trees than livestock. Available family labour was positively related to both farm production (provisioning services) and crop, tree and livestock species diversity. The use of manure, compost and mineral fertilisers was overall low, and the application rate per unit area seemed higher on farms with less land which was reflected in higher soil P and Ca concentrations. The challenges of already small and reducing farm sizes need to be targeted seriously in research and development efforts. Also the issue of labour requirement and pathways for mechanization must be addressed to attract a new generation farmers to develop sustainable and profitable farm enterprises providing ES to the farm and the surrounding landscape.